fNu~oUU!\ 


Mai 

Agric 


(S^^^^^ 


LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GI(eceroed 
Accessions  No.  /  If  *  *.  Class  No. 


PRUNING -BOOK 


THE  PRUNING -BOOK 


A  MONOGRAPH  OF  THE 

PRUNING    AND    TRAINING    OF    PLANTS 

AS    APPLIED    TO    AMERICAN 

CONDITIONS 


BY 

L.    H.    BAILEY 


Sttogtafc 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN  &   CO.,  LTD. 

1898 
All  rights  reserved 


ic.  Dept. 


COPYRIGHT,    1898, 
BY    L.    H.    BAILEY 


J.   Horace   McFarland  Company 
Harrisburg,  Pa. 


OP     T 

UNIVERSITY  ^ 


OUTLINE 


PAET  I 
THE   FUNDAMENTALS 

CHAPTER    I 

PAGES 

THE   PHILOSOPHY   OP   PRUNING     1-20 

Does  pruning  devitalize  plants  ? 4 

CHAPTER    II 
THE  FRUIT-BUD 21-75 

The  bud  and  the  branch 22 

The  leaf -bud  and  the  fruit-bud 27 

The  fruit -spur  as  illustrated  by  the  apple    .    .  30 

The  fruit -spur  as  illustrated  by  the  pear  ...  40 
The  fruit -spur  as  illustrated  by  the  plum  and 

cherry      46 

The  peach  and  the  apricot 50 

Gooseberries,  currants  and  juneberries  ....  56 

Co-terminal  fruit-bearing 59 

Grapes  and  brambles 63 

How  to  tell  the  fruit -buds 66 

Summary   synopsis    of   the  positions  of   fruit- 
buds     .  • 74 

(v) 


VI  OUTLINE 

CHAPTER    III 

PAGES 

THE   HEALING   OF   WOUNDS    . 76-132 

The  nature  of  the  wound 82 

Suggestions  to  the  pruner 95 

When  to  cut  the  branches 102 

Dressings  for  wounds 109 

How  to  make  the  cut 114 

The  mending  of  trees 116 

CHAPTER   IV 

THE   PRINCIPLES   OF  PRUNING 133-190 

1.  Heavy  top-pruning  produces  wood  ....  136 

2.  Heavy  root -pruning  lessens  wood     ....  138 

3.  Heavy  top-pruning  rejuvenates  the  plant  .  139 

4.  Pruned  plant  resumes  its  normal  habit  .    .  150 

5.  Habit  varies  from  youth  to  age 153 

6.  One  part   lives  at  expense  of  another  .   .    .  154 

7.  Watersprouts  are  results  of  disturbed  equi- 

librium      155 

8.  Plants  grow  from  uppermost  buds    ....  157 

9.  Heading-in  develops  lateral  buds     ....  157 

10.  Effect  of  obstructions 161 

11.  Checking  growth  induces  fruitfulness  .    .    .  162 

12.  Fruit-bearing  is  determined  by  habit  .    .    .  163 

13.  Girdling  and  the  like  are  special  practices.  167 

14.  Pruning  thins  the  fruit 174 

15.  Heading-in  induces  fruitfulness 180 

16.  Season  of   pruning  influences  fruitfulness.  181 

17.  Pruning  depends  upon  locality  and  climate.  185 

18.  What  influences  the  healing  of  wounds  ?  .  189 

19.  Dressings 190 

20.  General  law  .  190 


OUTLINE  vii 

PAKT   II 
THE   INCIDENTALS 

CHAPTER   V 

PAGES 

SOME   SPECIFIC   ADVICE 193-340 

The  form  of  the  top 193 

How  to  trim  young  plants 205 

Root-pruning 227 

Root -pruning  when  transplanting 232 

Subsequent  treatment  of  the  plants 250 

Management  of  top -worked  trees 263 

Management  of  dwarf  trees 269 

Ringing  and  girdling 281 

Pruning  tools 297 

Remarks  on  specific  plants 309 

Apple 309 

Apricot 310 

Cherry 313 

Orange 314 

Peach 315 

Pear 319 

Plum 320 

Quince 322 

Blackberries  and  raspberries 323 

Currants  and  gooseberries 327 

Shade  trees      333 

Hedges 333 

Ornamental  plants 335 

CHAPTER    VI 

SOME  SPECIFIC  MODES  OF  TRAINING 341-389 

European  practice 342 

Trees  and  bushes  in  pots 374 

Other  special  modes  of  training 384 


Vlll  OUTLINE 

CHAPTER   VII 

PAGES 

AMERICAN  GRAPE  TRAINING— GENERAL  SKETCH    .    .  390-430 

Pruning  the  grape 402 

Pruning  young  vines 411 

When  to  prune 413 

Summer  pruning 414 

Making  the  trellis 416 

Tying 426 

CHAPTER    VIII 

AMERICAN  GRAPE  TRAINING — THE  VARIOUS  MODES  .  431-493 

The  upright  systems 436 

Horizontal  arm  spur  system 437 

The  high  renewal 441 

Fan  training 455 

The  drooping  systems 458 

The  true  or  four- cane  Kniffin 460 

Modifications  of  the  four-cane  Kniffin  .  .  .  466 

The  two-cane  Kniffin,  or  umbrella  system  .  469 

The  low,  or  one -wire  Kniffin 472 

The  six-cane  Kniffin 473 

Eight-cane  Kniffin 474 

Caywood,  overhead,  or  arbor  Kniffin  ....  474 

The  cross-wire  system 477 

Renewal  Kniffin 478 

The  Munson  system 480 

Modified  Munson 485 

Miscellaneous  systems 486 

Horizontal  training 486 

Post  training 488 

Arbors 490 

Remodeling  old  vines 41)  1 


OUTLINE  IX 

CHAPTER    IX 

PAGES 

VINIFERA  GRAPE  TRAINING 494-530 

California  practice 494 

Proper  method  of  making  cuts 498 

Short  and  long -pruning 500 

Pruning  of  young  vines 503 

Systems  of  pruning 505 

Summer  pruning 521 

Classification  of  the  varieties 525 

Glass-house  practice 528 

INDEX  .  533-537 


PART  I 

THE    FUNDAMENTALS 


1896 


'1895 


1894 


1.     The  history  of  a  lilac  shoot. 


THE    PRTJNING-BOOK 


CHAPTER   I 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    PRUNING 

A  lilac  branch  is  shown  in  the  engraving  on 
the  opposite  page  (Fig.  1).  Its  most  important 
characteristic, — as  of  any  branch, — is  the  fact  that 
its  various  parts  are  unlike.  We  must  discover 
the  reasons  for  these  unlikenesses  or  differences. 

The  branch  is  five  years  old.  The  dates  mark 
the  termination  of  the  growth  of  each  year. 
The  terminal  growths  all  grew  in  1897.  Since 
the  branches  of  any  year  spring  from  buds  which 
were  formed  the  previous  year,fcswe  can  determine 
the  normal  method  of  branching  of  the  lilac  by 
examining  the  buds  upon  the  current  year's 
growths.  The  branches  a  and  b  are  each  seen 
to  have  five  pairs  of  buds.  The  buds  are  on  op- 
posite sides  of  the  branch.  The  twig  growth 
or  branching  of  the  lilac,  therefore,  should  be  a 
successive  series  of  forks;  but  such  is  notably  not 
the  case.  In  other  words,  the  normal  method  of 
branching  has  not  taken  place;  and  the  reason  is, 


2  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    PRUNING 

that  not  all  the  branches  could  develop  in  the 
severe  struggle  for  existence. 

The  effect  of  this  struggle  for  existence  is  to 
be  seen  even  in  the  buds  upon  the  current  year's 
growths,  as  on  a  and  6.  The  largest  and  strongest 
buds  are  on  the  tips,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  buds  are 
smaller  and  weaker  the  nearer  one  approaches  the 
base  of  the  shoot.  This  unequal  development  of 
the  buds  is  undoubtedly  associated  chiefly  with 
the  amount  of  sunlight  to  which  the  different 
parts  of  the  shoot  were  exposed. 

It  is  further  to  be  observed  that  the  twin  ter- 
minal buds  are  not  often  alike.  The  difference 
is  marked  at  &.  It  is  evident  that,  if  each  of 
these  buds  develops  a  branch,  the  two  branches 
will  be  very  unlike. 

Let  us  now  trace  the  history  of  this  interesting 
lilac  branch.  The  first  growth  ended  at  the  point 
marked  1893.  In  1894,  a  shoot  grew  from  each 
of  the  terminal  buds,  and  three  other  shoots 
developed.  It  is  noticeable,  in  the  first  place, 
that  the  strongest  shoots  are  those  arising  from 
the  terminal  buds,  while  the  lowest  buds  developed 
no  shoots  and  still  remain  dormant  (s).  In  the 
second  place,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  no  two  of 
the  five  branches  are  alike.  Three  branches  are 
strong,  but  two,  m,  n,  have  succumbed  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  and  are  now  dead.  That 
is,  pruning  has  begun. 

Tracing  the  strong  branch  at  the  right  (running 


HISTORY    OF    A    BRANCH  d 

off  to  0),  it  is  seen  that  it  grew  to  1894  the  first 
year.  The  second  year  it  grew  to  1895;  and  in 
that  year,  also,  one  branch,  r,  was  developed. 
It  is  noticeable,  too,  that  two  branches  started 
from  the  end  of  the  1894  growth,  but  one  of 
them  failed,  and  only  a  short  stnb  now  records 
the  fact.  The  third  year  the  branch  grew  to 
1896,  and  a  very  small  branch,  q,  now  dead,  was 
produced  on  the  growth  of  1895.  The  fourth 
year  (1897)  the  branch  grew  to  o,  and  a  single 
shoot,  p,  grew  on  the  growth  of  1896.  Altogether, 
this  branch  has  made  forty  efforts  to  produce 
branches  (that  is,  forty  buds  on  the  growths  pre- 
vious to  1897,  but  not  all  traceable  in  the  illus- 
tration), only  five  of  which,  r,  at  1894,  #,  jo,  and 
o  have  been  successful;  and  of  these  five  branches, 
two  are  dead,  and  only  one,  o,  seems  likely  to 
persist.  That  is,  in  the  struggle  for  existence, 
only  one  effort  in  forty  has  been  successful. 

The  large  branch  on  the  left,  terminating  at  i, 
may  now  be  examined.  The  first  year  it  grew  to 
1894.  The  second  year  it  grew  in  the  direction 
?,  but  that  branch  died  and  the  year's  growth  was 
lost.  The  stub  or  remains  of  this  branch  is  seen 
at  I.  The  third  year  the  branch  grew  to  1896. 
The  fourth  year  (1897)  the  terminal  branch  grew 
to  i,  a  side  branch  to  j,  and  another  side  branch, 
now  nearly  dead,  grew  to  k.  The  entire  branch 
(1893  to  i)  has  made  over  twenty  efforts  at 
branches,  four  of  which  efforts  were  successful, 


4  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OP    PRUNING 

but  two  of  which,  &,  Z,  are  now  dead.  That  is, 
two  efforts,  *',  j,  out  of  more  than  twenty,  give 
promise  of  being  useful.  It  is  noticeable  that 
whereas  these  two  branches — terminating  at  o  and 
at  i — are  of  the  same  age,  they  have  developed 
in  very  different  size  and  form. 

Without  waiting  for  the  details,  we  may  say 
that  the  entire  branch  in  Fig.  1  has  made  about 
one  hundred  and  forty  attempts  at  branches.  Of 
these  attempts,  or  buds,  twenty -four  have  pro- 
duced branches,  and  of  these  branches,  nine  are 
already  dead.  The  lessons  to  be  derived  from 
this  study  of  the  lilac  branch  may  be  applied  to 
all  plants.  They  are:  (1)  there  are  more  efforts 
at  branches  than  there  are  branches;  (2)  there  is, 
therefore,  severe  struggle  for  existence;  (3)  the 
results  are  that  differences  arise  and  that  some 
branches  die.  In  other  words,  plants  must  and 
do  prune  themselves. 

DOES    PRUNING    DEVITALIZE    PLANTS?* 

A  year  ago  I  read  a  paper  before  this  Society 
upon  some  of  the  relations  between  grafting  and 
the  vitality  of  the  plant  [reprinted  in  The  Nursery- 
Book,  third  edition,  pp.  82-94] ,  and  it  seemed  to 
me  that  the  sum  of  the  argument  showed  that 
grafting,  while  often  improperly  and  injudiciously 
done,  is  not  of  itself  a  devitalizing  or  injurious 

*Address  before  the  Peninsula    Horticultural  Society,  January,  1893, 
and  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  that  year,  pp.  43-49. 


NATURE    OP    PRUNING  5 

practice.  I  now  ask  you  to  follow  a  similar  argu- 
ment with  reference  to  pruning.  This  subject  is, 
perhaps,  even  more  important  than  the  other,  for 
every  owner  of  a  fruit  tree  expects  to  prune,  or 
at  least  he  considers  the  advisability  of  the  opera- 
tion. There  is  the;  greatest  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  merits  of  particular  styles  and  methods 
of  pruning,  and  perhaps  equal  difference  as  to 
the  effect  of  the  operation  on  the  life  and  health 
of  the  tree.  Perhaps  every  fruit-grower  has 
observed  evil  effects  to  result  from  pruning,  and 
many  of  these  observers  have  reasoned  therefrom 
that  pruning  is  itself  injurious,  or  at  least  haz- 
ardous. I  cannot,  of  course,  uphold  nor  explain 
away  the  examples  of  injury  which  follow  prun- 
ing. They  are  patent  even'to  the  casual  observer; 
but  we  must  not  exalt  individual  instances,  how- 
ever numerous,  into  proofs  of  the  perniciousness 
of  pruning.  There  should  have  been  at  this  day 
sufficient  study  and  experience  to  enable  us  to 
pass  upon  the  merits  of  the  practice,  as  a  whole. 
It  is  urgent,  also,  that  the  subject  be  discussed, 
for  however  much  of  correct  teaching  may  be  pro- 
mulgated, there  is  a  constantly  recurring  wave  of 
error  and  prejudice.  For  myself,  I  am  convinced 
that  pruning,  even  when  somewhat  heroic,  is  not 
a  devitalizing  practice;  and  in  support  of  this 
conviction  I  shall  present  arguments  from  three 
sources, — philosophy,  plant  physiology,  and  com- 
mon experience.  I  must  say  at  the  beginning, 


6  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OP    PRUNING 

however,  that  I  do  not  propose  to  discuss  me- 
chanical injuries  to  the  trees,  as  a  result  of 
wounds,  for  we  all  know  that  such  injuries  are  a 
result  of  careless  or  injudicious  pruning.  My 
proposition  is  this:  Does  it  injure  a  plant  to 
remove  a  part  of  it!  Is  the  entire  growth  of  a 
plant  necessary  to  its  health  and  longevity? 

1.  The  argument  from  philosophy.  There  is 
an  intense  struggle  for  existence  among  all  or- 
ganisms. The  world  is  now  full,  and  there  can 
probably  be  no  permanent  increase  in  the  sum 
total  of  animals  and  plants.  If  one  species  in- 
creases, another  must  decrease.  Changes  in  the 
numbers  of  individuals  are,  therefore,  largely 
matters  of  readjustment  between  different  types. 
Each  kind  is  held  down  to  a  certain  equilibrium 
in  relation  to  other  kinds.  It  is  easy  to  see  that 
any  species  of  animal  or  plant  could  completely 
occupy  the  surface  of  the  globe,  if  it  could  mul- 
tiply to  the  full  extent  of  its  powers.  Not  only 
do  some  species  compete  with  others,  but  the 
individuals  of  the  same  species  compete  with  each 
other  for  standing  room.  The  greater  the  num- 
ber of  thistles  in  a  given  field,  the  less  is  the 
opportunity  for  another  thistle  plant  to  gain  a 
foothold.  Now,  a  tree  is  essentially  a  collection 
or  colony  of  individual  plants.  Every  branch, 
even  every  joint  of  the  branch,  is  endeavoring  to 
do  what  every  other  branch  does — to  bear  leaves, 
flowers  and  seeds.  Every  branch  competes  with 


COMPETITION    IN    THE    TOP  7 

every  other  branch;  and  there  are  more  germs  of 
branches — that  is,  more  buds — than  there  can  be 
branches  upon  any  tree.  So  it  comes  that  no  two 
branches  of  a  tree  are  exactly  alike,  but  are  what 
their  position  or  condition  makes  them  to  be. 
Some  are  strong  and  some  are  weak.  That  is, 
there  is  no  definite  or  proper  size  or  shape  for 
any  branch,  as  there  is  for  the  different  mem- 
bers of  an  animal  or  flower.  The  limbs  and 
organs  of  an  animal  are  not  competitors  but  co- 
partners, each  performing  some  function  or  office 
which  another  does  not,  and  they  all  obtain  a  defi- 
nite maturity  of  size  and  shape.  But  a  branch 
never  attains  its  full  size  until  it  ceases  to  grow 
and  thereby  begins  to  die.  Branches  are  not  or- 
gans, but  competing  individuals.  If  all  these 
statements  are  true,  then  three  conclusions  fol- 
low: there  is  struggle  for  existence  amongst  the 
branches  of  a  tree,  and  some  of  the  contestants 
perish;  the  destruction  of  these  branchess  must 
conduce  to  the  betterment  of  the  remaining  ones; 
all  the  branches  of  a  tree  are  not  necessary  to 
it,  but  some  of  them  may  be  a  detriment  to  it. 
In  other  words,  pruning  is  a  necessity. 

Two  years  ago  a  wild  black  cherry  tree  came 
up  near  my  door.  The  first  year,  it  sent  up  a 
single  straight  shoot  nineteen  inches  high,  which 
produced  twenty -seven  buds  and  one  branchlet 
eight  inches  long.  This  branchlet  bore  twelve 
buds.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season,  therefore, 

" 
lUNlVERSITY 


&  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OP    PRITNIN& 

the  little  tree  had  produced  a  total  of  thirty -nine 
buds,  one  branchlet,  and  twenty -seven  inches  of 
growth.  The  second  year,  1892,  nineteen  of  these 
thirty -nine  buds  produced  branches  and  twenty- 
did  not  start.  These  nineteen  branches  made  a 
total  growth  of  231  inches,  and  produced  370 
buds.  The  terminal  branch  or  shoot  grew  thirty- 
six  inches  long.  Here,  then,  is  a  little  tree  two 
years  old  and  four  and  one -half  feet  high  which 
has  made  an  effort  to  bear  409  branches.  It  is 
plain  that  more  than  ninety  per  cent  of  these 
efforts  must  be  futile.  Many  of  the  buds  will 
not  start,  but  the  tree  now  has  a  total  of  twenty- 
seven  branches  and  subdivisions  as  a  result  of 
its  first  year's  growth;  if  it  makes  a  proportional 
number  this  year  from  the  growth  of  1892,  it  will 
bear  216  branches  at  the  close  of  1893  and  will 
have  made  a  total  effort  of  about  3,500  branch - 
germs  or  buds.  This  little  tree  will  undergo  a 
severe  pruning  in  the  coming  years,  although  a 
knife  does  not  touch  it.* 

But  the  natural  thinning  of  the  top  will  con- 
tinue in  geometrical  ratio  as  long  as  the  tree 
grows;  and  after  a  time  this  pruning  will  become 
more  severe,  for  larger  branches  will  be  sacrificed. 
Probably  less  than  a  fifth  of  the  buds  upon  any 
tree  ever  make  branches,  and  less  than  a  fifth  of 
the  branches  persist.  The  greater  part  of  these 

"The  subsequent  history  of  this  cherry  tree,  and  record  of  its  tragic 
death,  may  be  found  in  "The  Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  pp.  88,  89. 


INSTRUCTIVE    CHERRY    TREES  9 

branches  die  before  they  come  to  bearing  age,  no 
doubt,  but  some  of  them  perish  after  they  have 
attained  to  a  considerable  size.  A  forest  tree 
grows  a  tall,  straight  bole  because  the  side  branches 
are  lopped  roff;  and  the  more  vigorous  this  prun- 
ing, the  taller  and  stronger  the  tree  becomes. 

Another  black  cherry  tree,  two  years  old,  found 
in  the  woods,  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  first  year 
it  grew  from  the  ground  to  «,  and  it  bore  buds  at 
regular  intervals, — about  two  dozen  of  them. 
The  second  year,  the  terminal  bud  sent  out  a 
shoot  to  5,  and  thirteen  lateral  buds  gave  rise  to 
branches.  Of  these  thirteen  lateral  branches, 
obviously  only  three  stand  any  chance  of  living 
in  the  dense  shade  of  the  forest.  In  fact,  four 
or  five  of  the  lowest  twigs  were  dead  when  the 
picture  was  made;  showing  that  the  struggle  for 
existence  does  not  always  result  from  competition 
among  fellows,  but  may  arise  from  the  crowding 
of  other  plants. 

These  three  strong  branches  in  Fig.  2  are  less 
than  four  feet  from  the  ground,  but  other  old 
cherry  trees  standing  near  it  had  no  branches 
within  fifteen  and  twenty  feet  of  the  ground. 
They  no  doubt  branched  low  down,  as  this  one, 
but  the  branches  eventually  died  in  the  struggle; 
and  we  therefore  have  reason  to  conclude  that  of 
all  the  branches  on  this  little  tree,  only  the  ter- 
minal one,  b,  can  long  survive.  One  has  only  to 
look  on  the  forest  floor  to  see  how  freely  trees 


2.    The  curious  history  of 
wild  cherry  tree. 


3.    Upright  habit  of  the 
sweet  cherry. 


RECORDS    IN    TREE    TOPS 


11 


have  shed  their  twigs.     The  trunk  of  a  tree,  then, 

is  the  remainder  in  a  long  problem  of  subtraction. 

A   young   tree   of    the  sweet   garden   cherry  is 


4.     Diffuse  habit  of  the  sour  cherry. 

shown  in  Fig.  3,  and  one  of  the  Morello  or  pie 
cherry  in  Fig.  4.  In  the  former,  the  terminal 
growths  are  strong,  and  the  leader,  or  central 
trunk,  has  persisted.  The  latter  has  long  since 


12  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    PRUNING 

lost  its  leader,  and  the  side  growths  are  strong. 
Let  the  reader  now  figure  out  how  many  buds 
have  perished  (or  at  least  failed  to  make  perma- 
nent branches)  in  each  of  these  trees,  if  they  are 
supposed  to  be  seven  years  old.  Any  garden 
cherry  tree  will  give  him  the  probable  number  of 
buds  to  each  annual  growth.  Even  without  the 
figures,  it  is  evident  that  there  are  very  many 
more  failures  than  successes  in  any  tree  top. 

So  every  tree  is  a  record  of  defeats  and  dis- 
asters in  order  that  the  stronger  parts  may  live. 
It  is  safe  to  conclude  that  if  nature  is  such  a 
searching  and  undogmatic  primer,  man  may 
prune,  too.  Those  persons  who  declaim  that 
pruning  is  unnatural,  should  be  taken  into  a 
neglected  orchard  and  be  made  to  see  what  has 
transpired  in  the  tree  tops. 

I  may  be  met  here  with  the  criticism  that  arti- 
ficial pruning  is  excessive ;  but  I  answer  that 
it  is  not  different  in  kind  from  natural  pruning, 
and  that  it  is  fully  warranted  by  the  different  ob- 
jects in  view.  The  ultimate  object  of  nature  is 
the  production  of  seeds,  and  the  more  viable 
seeds  produced,  the  better.  Many  small  fruits, 
therefore,  are  desired.  Man  covets  the  fleshy 
portion  of  the  fruit,  or  some  other  character 
which  is  of  minor  importance  to  the  plant.  He 
must,  therefore,  thin  the  plant  rigorousty, — re- 
duce the  struggle  for  existence — in  order  that 
size  and  quality  may  come  before  number.  He 


THE    VITALITY    OF    THE    PLANT  13 

simply  deflects  the  energy  into  another  channel. 
2.  The  argument  from  plant  physiology  is 
equally  important.  It  is  a  common  assertion 
that  cutting  off  a  limb  is  an  injury  because  it 
removes  a  given  amount  of  tissue  in  the  pro- 
duction of  which  the  plant  expended  effort ; 
that  is,  that  pruning  exhausts  the  plant.  This 
statement  assumes  that  a  plant  has  a  certain 
fixed  vitality,  from  which  a  given  amount  is 
withdrawn  whenever  a  portion  of  the  plant  is 
cut  away.  I  might  illustrate  this  by  supposing 
that  a  plant  has  an  initial  vitality  represented 
by  the  figure  10 ;  then,  if  one- tenth  of  the  top 
is  removed,  there  is  left  a  vitality  of  9.  But 
this  assumption  is  wholly  gratuitous.  The  vi- 
tality of  a  plant  is  very  largely  determined  by 
the  conditions  under  which  it  grows — the  charac- 
ter of  the  soil  and  treatment ;  and,  I  may  add, 
that  as  plants  have  no  nerves,  they  cannot  die 
of  shock,  as  we  sometimes  hear  it  said.  Every 
fruit-grower  knows  that  two  trees  of  the  same 
initial  vigor  may  differ  widely  from  each  other 
in  thrift  and  healthfulness  at  the  expiration  of 
five  years,  if  given  different  soil  and  care.  If 
the  plant  is  very  largely  what  its  food  supply 
and  other  environments  make  it  to  be,  if  it  is 
constantly  renewed  and  augmented,  then  the 
removal  of  a  portion  of  it  cannot  destroy  its 
vitality  unless  the  removal  is  so  great  as  to 
interfere  with  the  nutrition  of  the  remaining 


14       THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  PRUNING 

parts.  It  may  be  replied  that  the  tissue,  the 
wood,  which  is  removed  in  large  limbs,  might 
have  been  saved  to  the  tree  by  directing  it  into 
other  parts  of  the  top  by  means  of  earlier  prun- 
ing. This  may  be  true ;  but  I  must  contend 
that  this  saving  would  have  resulted  only  in  an 
economy  of  time  by  building  up  the  other  parts 
earlier  in  the  lifetime  of  the  tree,  and  not  in  an 
economy  of  vitality,  for  vitality  is  constantly 
renewed. 

It  may  be  a  question  if  we  really  save  a  pro- 
portionate amount  of  time  by  early  pruning ; 
that  is,  whether  we  can  direct  the  same  amount 
of  growth  into  the  remaining  portions  of  the 
plant  by  pruning  very  early  in  its  lifetime 
as  we  can  by  pruning  when  the  superfluous 
branches  have  attained  some  size  and  have,  per- 
haps, begun  to  bear.  There  is  an  exact  balance 
between  the  feeding  capacity  of  the  plant — that  is, 
its  root-system  and  food  supply — and  the  super- 
ficial growth  of  the  plant.  The  more  active 
and  efficient  the  root,  the  larger  the  top.  If  we 
remove  a  large  portion  of  this  top,  there  is  an 
endeavor  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  an  exceed- 
ingly rapid  growth.  So  pruned  plants  are  nearly 
always  more  vigorous  than  unpruned  ones,  be- 
cause of  the  concentration  of  a  somewhat  con- 
stant food  supply  into  a  smaller  number  of 
branches.  Therefore,  pruning  must  have  much 
the  same  effect  as  manuring.  The  stimulating 


PRUNING    INCREASES    VIGOR  15 

effect  of  this  new  growth,  or  new  disposition 
of  energy,  must  be  felt  upon  the  root- system 
also ;  and  I  can  conceive  that  it  is  a  point  for 
discussion  as  to  whether  this  stimulus  and  re- 
sponse to  new  conditions  may  not  be  greater 
when  the  pruning  is  somewhat  heroic  than  when 
it  is  so  evenly  distributed  over  the  lifetime  of 
the  tree  as  to  be  imperceptible.  Growth  is  cer- 
tainly more  emphatic  following  a  heroic  pruning, 
but  it  may  not  be  greater  in  sum  than  that 
which  follows  several  prunings  of  equal  aggre- 
gate severity.  My  own  observation  and  experi- 
ence lead  me  to  believe  that  annual  pruning  of 
all  fruit  trees  is  desirable,  but  I  am  equally  con- 
vinced that  it  does  not  pay,  either  in  cost  of 
pruning  or  in  good  to  the  tree,  to  cut  out  all 
the  superfluous  twigs  at  each  pruning.  These 
superfluous  twigs  can  often  be  left  until  they 
are  two  or  three  or  even  four  years  old  with 
advantage.  Although  stimulating  effects  may 
result  from  the  considerable  unbalance  of  the 
plant  when  many  branches  are  removed,  these 
superfluous  and  unpruned  twigs  often  afford  a 
very  useful  shelter  or  sun -screen  to  the  inner 
parts  of  the  top,  and  they  lessen  the  danger  of 
over -pruning,  by  which  the  nutrition  of  the  tree 
may  be  injured. 

I  have  said  that  pruning  increases  vigor.  Two 
trees  of  Siberian  Crab  were  set  near  my  house 
in  the  spring  of  1890.  These  trees  are  as  near 


16  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    PRUNING 

alike  as  any  two  apple  trees  which  I  have  ever 
seen,  and  they  stand  only  twenty -five  feet  apart. 
I  measured  the  growth  of  1891  on  one  of 
these  trees  and  found  it  to  have  been  745 
inches.  The  tree  was  then  thoroughly  pruned 
(February  17),  and  this  pruning  removed  460 
inches  of  wood,  of  which  432  inches  was  new- 
wood.  The  total  weight  of  this  wood  was  seven 
and  three-eighths  ounces.  The  other  tree  was 
not  pruned.  During  1892,  the  unpruned  tree 
produced  118  new  twigs,  with  a  total  length  of 
1,758  inches,  while  the  pruned  tree  produced 
120  new  twigs  and  made  a  total  growth  of  1,926 
inches.  The  pruned  tree,  therefore,  made  14 
feet  more  growth  than  the  other,  which  is  a 
large  proportion  for  a  tree  only  three  years  set ; 
and  the  growth  was  stouter  upon  this  tree,  also. 
In  other  words,  a%  tree  from  which  about  forty 
feet  of  branches  had  been  cut  bore  at  the  end 
of  a  single  season  fourteen  feet  more  wood  than 
a  similar  tree  which  had  not  been  pruned. 
Aside  from  the  greater  growth  which  this  prun- 
ing induced,  the  experiment  shows — in  common 
with  all  similar  ones — that  it  is  impossible,  as  I 
have  already  said,  to  injure  trees  by  what  is 
called  a  shock.  It  is  often  said  that  the  time 
of  the  year  when  pruning  is  performed  influences 
the  amount  of  growth.  It  is  said  that  pruning 
in  winter  makes  wood  and  pruning  in  summer 
makes  fruit.  It  is  certainly  true  that  winter 


NUTRITION  17 

pruning  makes  more  wood  in  the  current  year 
than  summer  pruning,  because  the  season's  growth 
is  nearly  or  quite  completed  when  the  summer 
pruning  is  performed ;  but  beyond  this  state- 
ment it  is  not  the  purpose  to  venture  at  this 
point  (see  Section  16,  Chapter  IV.). 

I  have  said  that  pruning,  of  itself,  cannot  be 
injurious  so  long  as  it  does  not  interfere  with 
the  nutrition  of  the  plant.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  that  I  explain  how  this  interference 
occurs.  A  plant  derives  a  certain  portion  of  its 
food  from  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  soluble  inor- 
ganic materials.  These  materials  ascend  to  the 
leaves  through  the  young  wood,  and  become 
associated  with  organized  compounds  like  starch 
and  sugar.  These  organized  compounds  are  used 
in  the  repair  and  growth  of  all  parts  of  the 
plant,  and  they  are,  therefore,  distributed  to 
the  leaves,  twigs,  trunk  and  roots.  The  growth 
of  the  roots  is,  therefore,  largely  determined  by 
the  amount  and  vigor  of  the  top  or  leaf-bearing 
portion.  The  removal  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
top  may  interfere,  therefore,  with  the  vigor  of 
the  plant  by  preventing  the  supply  of  a  sufficient 
amount  of  elaborated  food.  This  difficulty  is 
sometimes  experienced  in  the  girdling  or  ringing 
of  grape-vines,  which  prevents  the  distribution  of 
the  elaborated  plant -foods  to  the  roots.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  the  grape  is 
pruned  the  most  severely  of  all  fruits,  and  it  is, 


18  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    PRUNING 

therefore,  easy  to  overstep  the  danger  line ;  and 
yet  it  is  strange  that  while  certain  writers  dis- 
parage the  pruning  of  trees  they  do  not  object 
to  the  common  pruning  of  the  vine.  In  fruit 
trees  the  instances  of  injurious  interference  with 
nutrition  by  pruning  are  rare,  and  they  need  not 
be  further  considered  here.  This  is  proved  by 
the  good  results  which  so  often  follow  the  heroic 
treatment  of  top -grafted  trees. 

But,  you  want  to  say,  if  pruning  is  not  devital- 
izing, if  the  removal  of  strong  branches  induces 
more  vigorous  growth  in  the  remaining  ones, 
and  if  there  is  little  danger  of  disturbing  the 
nutrition  of  the  tree,  it  must  follow  that  there 
can  be  no  objection  to  the  removal  of  large 
branches.  I  cannot  agree  to  this  inference,  al- 
though I  am  willing  to  say  that  the  removal  of 
such  branches  may  not  be  objectionable  so  far  as 
direct  injury  or  shock  to  the  vitality  of  the  tree 
is  concerned.  But  there  are  important  reasons 
why  large  branches  should  not  be  removed.  Such 
pruning  exposes  dangerous  wounds,  it  is  apt  to 
open  the  tree  so  much  that  some  of  the  remaining 
parts  scald  and  borers  obtain  a  foothold,  it  may 
despoil  the  symmetry  or  convenience  of  the  tree, 
and  such  branches  may  represent  a  certain  amount 
of  energy  which  should  have  been  earlier  directed 
elsewhere;  and  aside  from  all  this,  the  cutting 
away  of  very  large  branches  often  indicates  a  lack 
of  enterprise  and  forethought  on  the  part  of  the 


TESTIMONY    OF    EXPERIENCE  19 

grower,  and  suggests  the  feeling  that  he  may  be 
remiss  in  all  his  operations.  But  while  I  dis- 
courage the  removal  of  branches  three  and  four 
inches  in  diameter,  I  must  repeat  that  it  is  not 
because  I  consider  such  practice  a  devitalizing 
one.  And  I  should  much  prefer  the  removal  of 
such  large  branches  to  total  neglect.  I  have  my- 
self removed  many  such  branches  ten  and  fifteen 
years  ago  from  apple  trees  which  are  to-day  in 
most  perfect  health  and  vigor. 

3.  If  philosophy  and  physiology  show  that 
pruning  is  not  a  devitalizing  process,  common 
experience  affords  still  stronger  proof.  One  of 
the  commonest  absurdities  in  our  horticultural 
literature  is  the  admonition  to  prune  only  with  a 
knife,  thereby  avoiding  the  cutting  of  large  limbs, 
while  there  is  not  an  orchardist  in  the  country 
who  practices  this  advice  if  he  prunes  thoroughly. 
If  scientific  teaching  and  permanently  successful 
practice  are  opposed,  then  the  teaching  is  wrong. 
I  am  afraid  that  some  of  our  accepted  teaching 
on  the  subject  of  pruning  will  not  stand  the 
test  of  time.  I  have  frequently  observed  that 
well  pruned  trees  live  as  long  as  those  unpruned, 
and  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  they  may  live 
longer ;  and  they  produce  more  during  their 
lifetime. 

But  suppose  that  pruning  is  a  devitalizing 
process — what  then?  Even  then  we  could  not 
afford  to  discontinue  it.  The  gains  in  size  and 


20  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    PRUNING 

quality  of  fruit,  in  ease  of  cultivation  and  spray- 
ing of  the  plants,  are  advantages  which  progressive 
horticulture  can  never  forego.  Advise  a  grape- 
grower  to  discontinue  pruning  ! 

It  appears  to  be  safe  to  conclude,  from  the 
foregoing  considerations,  that  pruning  is  a  legiti- 
mate practice,  finding  warrant  in  wild  plants,  in 
physiology  and  in  the  experience  of  centuries. 
It  is  not  of  itself,  as  ordinarily  performed,  a 
devitalizing  practice,  while  its  advantages  are 
several  and  important.  There  is  abundant  op- 
portunity for  improvement  in  methods,  and  every 
plant  needs  a  particular  treatment,  and  perhaps 
some  species  or  varieties  demand  little,  if  any, 
thinning  ;  but  as  a  whole,  pruning  is  indispensable 
to  successful  horticulture. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE   FRUIT -BUD 

Since  one  of  the  objects  of  pruning  is  to  secure 
more  and  better  fruit,  it  is  very  important  that 
the  reader  know  what  the  fruit -buds  are  and  upon 
what  part  of  the  plant  they  are  produced.  The 
best  way  of  gaining  this  knowledge  is  to  examine 
the  plants  in  company  with  a  competent  instruc- 
tor ;  but  since  the  author  can  produce  neither  of 
these  requisites,  the  reader  must  be  content,  for 
the  time,  to  look  at  pictures  and  to  read  about 
them.  The  book  will  explain  a  few  type  examples, 
and  will  suggest  methods  of  inquiry.  It  is  hoped, 
however,  that  as  soon  as  the  page  becomes  dull, 
the  reader  will  betake  himself  to  the  tree,  and 
there  obtain  his  knowledge  first  hand;  but  if  he 
should  complain  that  the  book  and  the  tree  do 
not  always  tell  the  same  story,  the  author  will 
declare  that  the  observer  did  not  see  what  he 
looked  at. 

Without  further  parley,  let  us  look  at  the 
plants.* 


*Parts  of  these  observations  are  adapted  from  the  author's  "Lessons 
with  Plants." 

(21) 


22  THE  FRUIT -BUD 


THE  BUD  AND  THE  BRANCH 

A  twig  cut  from  an  apple  tree  in  early  spring 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  most  hasty  observation 
shows  that  it  has  various  parts  or  members.  It 
seems  to  be  divided  at  the  point  /  into  two  parts. 
It  is  evident  that  the  portion  from  f  to  h  grew 
last  year,  and  that  the  portion  below  /  grew  two 
years  ago.  The  buds  upon  the  two  parts  are  very 
unlike,  and  these  differences  challenge  investi- 
gation. 

In  order  to  understand  this  seemingly  lifeless 
twig,  it  will  be  necessary  to  see  it  as  it  looked 
late  last  summer  (and  this  condition  is  shown  in 
Fig.  6).  The  portion  from  /to  h, — which  has 
just  completed  its  growth, — is  seen  to  have  only 
one  leaf  in  a  place.  In  every  axil  (or  angle  which 
the  leaf  makes  when  it  joins  the  shoot)  is  a  bud. 
The  leaf  starts  first,  and  as  the  season  advances 
the  bud  forms  in  its  axil.  When  the  leaves  have 
fallen,  at  the  approach  of  winter,  the  buds  re- 
main, as  seen  in  Fig.  5.  Every  bud  on  the  last 
year's  growth  of  a  winter  twig,  therefore,  marks 
the  position  occupied  by  a  leaf  when  the  shoot 
was  growing. 

The  portion  below  /,  in  Fig.  6,  shows  a  wholly 
different  arrangement.  The  leaves  are  two  or 
more  together  (a  a  a  a),  and  there  are  buds  without 
leaves  (bbbbj.  A  year  ago  this  portion  looked 
like  the  present  shoot  from  /  to  h, — that  is,  the 


5.     An  apple  twig. 


Same  twig  before  leaves  fell. 


24 


THE    FRUIT -BUD 


leaves  were  single,  with  a  bud  in  the  axil  of  each. 
It  is  now  seen  that  some  of  these  bud -like  parts 
are  longer  than  others,  and  that  the  longest  ones 


7.    Present  year's  shoot  of  apple. 

are  those  which  have  leaves.  It  must  be  because 
of  the  leaves  that  they  have  increased  in  length. 
The  body  c  has  lost  its  leaves  through  some  acci- 
dent, and  its  growth  has  ceased.  In  other  words, 
the  parts  akaaaa  are  like  the  shoot  /  h,  except 
that  they  are  shorter,  and  they  are  of  the  same 
age.  One  grows  from  the  end  or  terminal  bud 


BUDS    AND    BRANCHES  25 

of  the  main  branch,  and  the  others  from  the  side 
or  lateral  buds.  Parts  or  bodies  which  bear  leaves 
are,  therefore,  branches. 

The  buds  at  b  b  b  b  have  no  leaves,  and  they 
remain  the  same  size  that  they  were  a  year  ago. 
They  are  dormant.  The  only  way  for  a  mature 
bud  to  grow  is  by  making  leaves  for  itself,  for  a 
leaf  will  never  stand  below  it  again.  The  twig, 
therefore,  has  buds  of  two  ages, — those  at  b  b  b  b 


Last  year's  shoot  of  apple. 


are  two  seasons  old,  and  those  on  the  tips  of  all 
the  branches  (a  a  a  a,  hj,  and  in  the  axil  of 
every  leaf,  are  one  season  old.  It  is  only  the  ter- 
minal buds  which  are  not  axillary.  Buds  are 
buds  only  so  long  as  they  remain  dormant.  When 
the  bud  begins  to  grow  and  to  put  forth  leaves, 
it  gives  rise  to  a  branch,  which,  in  its  turn,  bears 
buds. 

It  will  now  be  interesting  to  determine  why 
certain  buds  gave  rise  to  branches  and  why  others 
remained  dormant.  The  strongest  shoot  or  branch 
of  the  year  is  the  terminal  on&-££-&yL_  The  next 


IVKRSITY  \ 

t  ~ 


26  THE    FRUIT -BUD 

in  strength  is  the  uppermost  lateral  one,  and  the 
weakest  shoot  is  at  the  base  of  the  twig.  The 
dormant  buds  are  on  the  under  side  (for  the  twig 
grew 'in  a  horizontal  position).  All  this  suggests 
that  those  buds  grew  which  had  the  best  chance, — 
the  most  sunlight  and  room.  There  were  too 
many  buds  for  the  space,  and  in  the  struggle  for 
existence  those  which  had  the  best  opportunities 
made  the  largest  growths.  This  struggle  for 
existence  began  a  year  ago,  however,  when  the 
buds  upon  the  shoot  below  /  were  forming  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves,  for  the  buds  near  the  tip 
of  the  shoot  grew  larger  and  stronger  than  those 
near  its  base.  The  growth  of  one  year,  there- 
fore, is  very  largely  determined  by  the  conditions 
under  which  the  buds  were  formed  the  previous 
year. 

All  these  remarks  are  still  further  illustrated  by 
Figs.  7  and  8.  Fig.  7  is  the  current  year's  growth 
of  apple.  The  leaves  are  placed  singly,  and  there 
is  a  single  bud  in  the  axil  of  each.  (The  two 
awl -like  bodies  at  the  base  of  each  leaf  are 
stipules,  or  appendages  of  the  leaves.)  Fig.  8 
is  a  shoot  a  year  older  than  the  other.  Four 
buds  were  formed  in  the  axils  of  as  many  leaves 
in  the  previous  year;  one  of  these  buds  is  dor- 
mant, but  the  other  three  have  produced  short, 
leafy  branches.  Any  tree  or  shrub  will  show  the 
same  differences  between  the  two  last  annual 
growths. 


STUDIES    OF    FRUIT -BEARING  27 

THE   LEAF-BUD   AND    THE   FRUIT-BUD 

Another  apple  branch  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  It 
seems  to  have  no  slender  last  year's  growth,  as 
Figs.  5  and  6  have  at  /  h.  It,  therefore,  needs 
special  attention.  It  is  first  seen  that  the  "ring" 
marking  the  termination  of  a  year's  growth  is  at 
a.  There  are  dormant  buds  at  b  b.  The  twig 
above  a  must  be  more  than  one  year  old,  however, 
because  it  bears  short  lateral  branches  at  e  e.  If 
these  branchlets  are  themselves  a  year  old  (as 
they  appear  to  be),  then  the  'portion  /  g  must  be 
a  similar  branch,  and  the  twig  itself  fa  fj  must 
be  two  years  old.  The  ring  marking  the  termina- 
tion of  the  growth  of  year  before  last  is,  therefore, 
at  /.  In  other  words,  a  twig  is  generally  a  year 
older  than  its  oldest  branches. 

The  buds  c  c  (Fig.  9)  are  larger  than  the  dor- 
mant buds  Cb  bj.  That  is,  they  have  grown;  and 
if  they  have  grown,  they  are  really  branches,  and 
leaves  were  borne  upon  their  little  axes  in  the 
season  just  past.  The  branchlets  d  d  d  are  larger 
(possibly  because  the  accompanying  leaves  were 
more  exposed  to  light) ,  and  e  e  and  g  are  still 
larger.  For  some  reason  the  growth  of  this  twig 
was  checked  last  year,  and  all  the  branches  re- 
mained short.  We  find,  in  other  words,  that  there 
is  no  necessary  length  to  which  a  branch  shall 
grow,  but  that  its  length  is  dependent  upon  local 
or  seasonal  conditions. 


10.     Opening  of  flower-bud 
of  apple. 


9.  Formation  of 
fruit-buds. 


11.  Opening  leaf -buds  of 
crab-apple. 


STUDIES    OF   FRUIT -BEARING  29 

There  are  other  and  more  important  differences 
in  this  shoot.  The  buds  terminating  the  branches 
(e  e  g)  are  larger  and  less  pointed  than  the  others 
are.  If  they  were  to  be  watched  as  growth  be- 
gins in  the  spring,  it  would  be  seen  that  they 
give  rise  to  both  flowers  and  leaves  (Fig.  10), 
while  the  other  buds  give  leaves  only  (Fig.  11). 
In  other  words,  there  are  two  general  kinds 
or  types  of  buds,  fruit -buds  (that  is,  flower- 
buds)  and  leaf -buds  ;  and  checking  the  growth 
induces  fruitfulness. 

If  the  buds  on  the  ends  of  the  branchlets  e  e  g 
produce  flowers,  the  twig  cannot  increase  in 
length;  for  an  apple  is  invariably  borne  on  the 
end  of  a  branch  (which  is  often  so  short  as  to  be 
called  a  spur) ,  and  therefore  no  terminal  bud  can 
form  there.  If  growth  takes  place  on  the  twig 
next  year,  therefore,  it  must  arise  from  one  of 
the  lower  or  leaf -buds.  The  buds  terminating  the 
branchlets  d  d  d  will  stand  the  best  chance  of 
continuing  the  growth  of  the  twig,  for  they  are 
the  largest  and  strongest,  and  are  most  exposed  to 
sunlight.  These  failing,  the  opportunity  will  fall 
to  one  or  both  of  c  c;  and  these  failing,  the  long- 
waiting  dormant  buds  may  find  their  chance  to 
grow.  The  reader  should  see  these  dormant 
buds  for  himself.  In  other  words,  there  are 
more  buds  upon  any  twig  than  are  needed,  but 
there  is,  thereby,  a  provision  against  emer- 
gencies. 


30 


THE    FRUIT -BUD 


THE    FRUIT-SPUR    AS    ILLUSTRATED    BY 
THE  APPLE 

We  have  now  found  (Figs.  9,  10,  11)  that  there 
are  two  kinds  of  buds,  the  leaf -buds,  and  the 
fruit -buds  (or  flower -buds).  Some  of  these  fruit- 


The  fruit-spur  and  leaf-spur. 


buds  on  the  apple  tree  terminate  short  branches 
(e  e  </,  Fig.  9),  but  now  and  then  one  is  borne 
on  the  end  of  the  axial  shoot  of  the  season.  Fig. 
12  is  an  apple  twig  as  it  looks  in  late  summer  and 
in  winter.  Several  dormant  buds  are  seen  on  the 
lower  part.  At  a  and  "b  are  short  branches.  The 
branch  5  has  made  a  small  and  pointed  bud,  which 
is  evidently  to  bear  only  leaves  next  year,  while 


ALTERNATION    IN    FRUIT  -  BEARING  31 

the  stronger  branch  ( a)  has  made  a  thick  and 
rounded  bud,  which  is  to  bear  flowers.  This 
fruit -bud  is  shown  natural  size  at  a  a.  The  short 
lateral  branches  are  called  spurs,  in  distinction 
from  the  longer  axial  growths.  We  have  already 
found  (page  29)  that  checking  growth  induces 


13.     Formation  of  the  lateral   bud  on  the  fruit-spur. 

fruitfulness,  but  on  the  other  hand,  starving  or 
greatly  weakening  the  growth  generally  gives  only 
a  weak  leaf -bud. 

When  fruits  or  flowers  are  borne  on  the  end  of 
a  spur,  the  direction  of  the  subsequent  growth  is 
necessarily  changed.  Fig.  13  is  a  bearing  spur 
of  apple.  While  the  apple  is  growing  from  the 
terminal  bud,  a  lateral  bud  (a)  is  forming  to  con- 
tinue the  spur  the  next  year.  The  same  thing  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  14.  This  side  bud  (a,  Fig.  13) 


32  THE    FRUIT -SPUR 

is,  therefore,  a  leaf -bud,  for  it  must  be  the  means 
of  continuing  the  growth  of  the  spur,  and  it  is 
not  likely  to  get  nourishment  enough, — seeing 
that  the  apple  is  the  chief  concern, — to  enable  it 
to  develop  into  a  blossom -bud.  There  is,  there- 
fore, an  alternation  of  fruit -bearing  buds  and 


14.     Fruit-spur  bearing  a  mature  apple,  remains  of  the  flowers 

which  failed  to  set,  and  the  bud  which  is  to  continue 

the  growth  of  the  spur. 

non- fruit -bearing  buds  in  the  spur  of  an   apple 
tree ;    and  this  is  true  of  most  fruit  trees. 

A  twig  of  Siberian  crab  apple,  taken  in  spring, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  Year  before  last,  each  of 
the  spurs  developed  a  fruit -bud  at  its  summit, 
and  last  year  each  of  these  spurs  bore  flowers. 
The  proof  of  this  is  seen  in  the  scars  left  by  the 
flower  stems  at  a  a.  None  of  these  flowers  de- 
veloped into  ripe  fruits,  otherwise  some  of  the 


FRUIT -SPURS    OF    APPLE 


33 


scars  would  have  been  much  larger  than  they  are. 
It  was  probably  for  that  very  reason, — the  failure 

of  the  fruit,— 
that  the  spurs 

•  were    able    to 

^  throw  out  leafy 
shoots     nearly 

or  quite  an  inch  long,  to  continue 
the  growth.  Yet,  even  then,  no 
fruit -bud  developed  on  the  ends 
of  these  spurs,  for  the  small 
pointed  ends  clearly  indicate  leaf- 
buds.  It  is  seen,  therefore,  that 
there  may  be  an  alternation  in 
the  fruit -spur,  even  when  the 
spur  does  not  bear  fruit. 

To  still  further  elucidate  the 
formation  of  fruit-buds  on  the 
apple,  and  to  recapitulate  some 
of  the  foregoing  observations,  let 
us  trace  the  history  of  given 
branches  in  detail.* 

One    of    these    twigs    (Fig.    16) 
was   taken  from    a   strong   young 
15.    Spurs  of  a      tree>   which     bore    its   first    good 
crab-apple.         crop    of   apples   last   year.      This 


*This  account  of  these  three  apple  twigs  is  adapted  from  the  author's 
leaflet  entitled  "Four  Apple  Twigs,"  issued  as  a  nature-study  suggestion 
by  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  Cornell  University,  1896-7.  This 
leaflet  (and  also  "Lessons  with  Plants")  contains  the  detailed  his- 
tory of  an  older  and  more  complicated  branch. 


34  THE    FRUIT -SPUR 

simple  twig  is  plainly  of .  two  years'  growth,  for 
the  "ring"  between  the  old  and  new  wood  is 
seen  at  B.  The  main  stem  from  the  base  to  B 
grew  in  1895  (the  picture  was  made  in  January, 
1897),  and  the  part  from  B  to  the  tip  grew  in 
1896.  The  buds  on  these  two  parts  look  very 
unlike.  Let  us  see  what  these  differences  mean. 

We  must  now  picture  to  ourselves  how  this 
shoot  from  B  to  10  looked  last  summer  while  it 
was  growing.  The  shoot  bore  leaves,  one  below 
each  bud;  or,  to  be  more  exact,  one  bud  developed 
just  above  each  leaf.  These  buds  did  not  put  out 
leaves.  They  grew  to  their  present  size  and  then 
stopped  (see  fh,  Fig.  6). 

What  are  these  buds  of  the  tip  shoot  propos- 
ing to  do  in  1897?  We  can  answer  this  question 
by  going  back  one  year  and  seeing  what  the  buds 
on  the  lower  (or  older)  part  of  the  shoot  did  in 
1896,  as  we  did  in  Figs.  5  and  6.  Upon  that 
part  (below  B)  the  buds  seem  to  have  increased 
in  size.  Therefore,  they  must  have  grown  last 
year.  There  were  no  leaves  borne  below  these 
buds  in  1896,  but  a  cluster  of  leaves  came  out  of 
each  bud  in  the  spring.  As  these  leaves  expanded 
and  grew,  the  little  bud  grew  on;  that  is,  each 
bud  grew  into  a  tiny  branch,  and  when  fall  came 
each  of  these  branches  had  a  bud  on  its  end  to 
continue  the  growth  in  the  year  to  come.  What 
we  took  to  be  simple  buds  at  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  are 
therefore  little  branches  (compare  Fig,  9). 


A  two-year-old  shoot  from  a 
young  apple  tree. 
Half  size. 


m 

17.     A  three-year-old 
shoot  and   fruit-spurs. 
Half  size. 


36  THE    FRUIT -SPUR 

But  the  strangest  part  of  this  twig  has  not  yet 
been  seen, — the  branches  are  of  different  sizes, 
and  three  of  them  (7,  8,  9)  have  so  far  out- 
stripped the  others  that  they  seem  to  be  of  a  dif- 
ferent kind.  It  should  be  noticed,  too,  that  the 
very  lowermost  bud  (at  1)  never  grew  at  all,  but 
remained  perfectly  dormant  during  the  entire 
year  1896.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  dor- 
mant bud  and  the  smallest  branches  are  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  shoot,  and  the  three  strong 
branches  are  at  the  very  tip  of  the  last  year's 
growth. 

If,  now,  we  picture  the  twig  as  it  looked  in  the 
fall  of  1895,  we  will  see  that  it  consisted  of  a 
single  shoot,  terminating  at  B.  It  had  a  large 
terminal  bud  (like  those  at  7,  8,  9,  10),  and 
this  bud  pushed  on  into  a  branch  in  1896,  and 
three  other  buds  near  the  tip  did  the  same 
thing. 

Some  of  these  branches  grew  to  be  larger 
than  others  because  of  more  sunlight  and  more 
room  on  this  outward  or  upward  end.  In 
1897, —  if  this  shoot  had  been  spared, — each  of 
these  four  largest  twigs  (7,  8,  9,  10)  would  have 
done  the  same  thing  as  the  parent  twig  did  in 
1896  :  each  would  have  pushed  on  from  its  end, 
and  one  or  two  or  three  other  strong  branches 
would  probably  have  started  from  the  strong 
side  buds  near  the  tips,  the  very  lowest  buds 
would,  no  doubt,  have  remained  perfectly  in- 


FRUIT -SPURS     OF    APPLE  37 

active  or  dormant  for  lack  of  opportunity,  and 
the  intermediate  buds  would  have  made  short 
branches  like  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  In  other  words, 
the  tree  always  tries  to  grow  onward  from  its  tips, 
and  these  tip  shoots  eventually  become  strong 
branches,  unless  some  of  them  die  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  What,  now,  becomes  of  the  little 
branches  lower  down! 

From  another  apple  tree  the  twig  shown  in  Fig. 
17  was  taken.  We  see  at  once  that  it  is  very 
unlike  the  other.  It  seems  to  be  two  years  old, 
one  year's  growth  extending  from  the  base  up  to 
7,  and  the  last  year's  growth  extending  from  7  to 
8  ;  but  we  shall  see  upon  looking  closer  that  this 
is  not  so.  The  short  branchlets  at  3,  4,  5,  7  are 
very  different  from  those  in  Fig.  16.  They  seem 
to  be  broken  off.  The  fact  is  that  the  broken 
ends  show  where  apples  were  borne  in  1896.  The 
branchlets  that  bore  them,  therefore,  must  have 
grown  in  1895,  and  the  main  branch,  from  1  to  7, 
grew  in  1894.  It  is  plain,  from  the  looks  of  the 
buds,  that  the  shoot  from  7  to  8  grew  during 
the  year  1896. 

Starting  from  the  base,  then,  we  have  the  main 
twig  growing  in  1894;  the  small  side  branches 
growing  in  1895;  these  little  branches  bearing 
apples  in  1896,  and  the  terminal  shoot  also  grow- 
ing in  1896.  Why  was  there  no  terminal  shoot 
growing  in  1895?  Simply  because  its  tip  de- 
veloped a  fruit -bud  (at  7),  and  therefore  could  not 


38  THE     FRUIT -SPUR 

send  out  a  branch  ;  for  there  are  two  kinds  of 
buds, — the  small,  pointed  leaf -bud  and  the  thic£, 
blunt  fruit -bud.  If  the  branchlets,  3,  4,  5,  7,  are 
two  years  old,  the  dormant  buds — 1,  2 — must  be 
the  same  age.  That  is,  for  two  long  years  these 
little  buds  have  been  waiting  for  some  bug  to  eat 
off  ,the  buds  and  leaves  above,  or  some  accident 
to  break  the  shoot  beyond,  so  that  they  might 
have  a  chance  to  grow;  but  they  have  waited  in 
vain. 

We  have  now  found,  therefore,  that  the  little 
side  shoots  upon  apple  twigs  may  become  fruit- 
branches  or  fruit -.spurs,  while  the  more  ambitious 
branches  above  them  are  making  a  display  of 
stem  and  leaves. 

But  will  these  fruit -spurs  bear  fruit  again  in 
1897?  No.  The  bearing  of  an  apple  is  hard 
work,  and  these  spurs  did  not  have  enough  vi- 
tality left  to  make  fruit-buds  for  the  next  year; 
but  they  must  perpetuate  themselves,  so  that  they 
have  sent  out  small  side  buds,  which  will  bear  a 
cluster  of  leaves  and  grow  into  another  little  spur 
in  1897,  and  in  that  year  these  new  spurs  will 
make  fruit -buds  for  bearing  in  1898.  The  side 
bud  is  plainly  seen  on  spur  5,  also  on  spur  4, 
while  spur  7  has  sown  a  seed,  so  to  speak,  in  the 
bud  at  6.  It  is,  therefore,  plain  why  the  tree 
bears  every  other  year  (see  page  32,  Figs.  13,  14). 

There  was  one  tree  in  the  orchard  from  which 
the  farmer  had  not  picked  his  apples.  Perhaps 


FRUIT -BEARING     OF    APPLE  39 

the  apples  were  not  worth  picking.  At  any  rate, 
the  dried  apples,  shriveled  and  brown,  hang  on 
the  twigs  in  midwinter,  and  even  the  birds  do  not 
seem  to  care  for  them.  One  of  these  twigs  is 
drawn  in  Fig.  18.  Let  us  see  how  many  apples 
this  twig  has  borne.  We  can  tell  by  the  square- 
cut  scars.  An  apple  was  once  borne  at  1,  another 


18.     A  fruit-spur  -svhich 

has  borne  six  apples. 

Half  size. 


at  2,  another  at  4,  another  at  5,  another  at  6, 
and  another  at  7, — and  at  7  there  will  be  a  scar 
when  the  apple  falls.  Six  apples  this  modest 
shoot  has  borne!  We  may  speculate  how  many 
of  them  got  ripe,  or  how  many  were  taken  by  the 
worms,  or  urchins. 

A  curious  thing  happened  when  the  fruit  was 
growing  at  2.  Two  side  buds  started  out,  instead 
of  one,  and  both  of  them  grew  the  next  year. 
But  one  of  the  little  branchlets  fell  sick  and  died, 
or  a  bug  nipped  off  its  end,  or  it  starved  to  death; 
and  the  grave  is  still  marked  by  the  little  stick 


40  THE    FRUIT -SPUR 

standing  at  3.    The  other  branchlet  thrived,  and 
eventually  bore  apples  at  4,  5,  6  and  7. 

We  have  found  that  these  fruit -spurs  bear  only 
every  other  year;  then,  if  this  branch  has  borne 
six  apples,  it  must  be  twelve  years  old.  The 
truth  is  that  it  is  about  twenty  years  old,  for 
some  years  it  failed  to  bear;  but  the  age  cannot 
be  traced  in  the  picture,  although  it  could  be 
made  out  from  the  branch  itself. 

THE  FRUIT-SPUR   AS  ILLUSTRATED    BY 
THE  PEAR 

An  old  fruit -spur  of  a  pear  tree  is  shown  in  Fig. 
19.  One  year  it  grew  from  the  base  to  a,  and 
there  formed  a  fruit -bud.  Let  us  suppose  that 
this  year  was  1880.  In  1881,  a  pear  matured  from 
this  bud,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  large  scar  at  a. 
In  this  year,  also,  a  lateral  bud  developed.  In 
1882,  this  bud  gave  rise  to  a  shoot.  The  "rings" 
whence  it  started  are  plainly  seen  at  a  a.  It  is 
noticeable,  also,  that  the  spur  ceased  to  grow  in 
the  direction  a.  In  this  year,  1882,  the  shoot 
grew  to  the  rings  b  b,  and  there  developed  a  fruit- 
bud.  In  1883,  this  fruit -bud  opened  and  pro- 
duced flowers,  one  of  which  bore  fruit,  as  shown 
by  the  large  scar  (bj.  The  short  growth  from 
b  b  to  b  is  that  which  took  place  in  the  elongation 
from  the  bud  in  this  spring  of  1883.  While  this 
fruit  was  developing,  a  leaf -spur  pushed  out  from 
just  below  the  fruit  (bj,  and  grew  to  the  next 


FRUIT -SPURS    OF    PEAR 


41 


series  of  rings  (c  c) .  A  weaker  bud  also  de- 
veloped, which  in  1884  pushed  toward  c.  The 
six  years'  growths  can  be  traced  on  this  side 
shoot,  and  it  once  made  a 
flower -bud,  and  a  fruit  set 
at  c;  but  the  small  size  of 
the  scar  shows  that  the  fruit 
never  attained  maturity.  It 
probably  fell  in  very  early 
summer.  It  is  apparent  that 
there  is  an  alternation  in  the 
fruit -bearing  of  the  pear,  as 
in  that  of  the  apple;  from 
this  we  may  infer  that  there 
is  something  like  an  alter- 
nation of  effort,  or  division 
of  labor,  in  the  successive 
growths  of  many  plants. 

The  further  history  of  this 
interesting  pear  spur  (Fig. 
19 )  may  be  summarized  as  fol- 
lows: 1884,  the  barren  shoot 
grew  to  e  e,  and  made  a  fruit- 
bud;  1885,  pear  borne  and 
carried  to  maturity  at  e,  two 
side  buds  developing,  and  also 

two  weaker  spurs  at  d  and  d  d, — giving  four 
chances  of  continuing  the  growth  of  the  main 
spur;  1886,  the  spurs  d  and  d  d  remained  small 
and  slender,  but  one  of  the  upper  branches  grew 


Old  spur  of 
pear. 


42  THE    FRUIT -BUD 

on  to  g  and  there  made  a  fruit -bud,  while  its 
twin  bud  (upon  the  left)  did  not  elongate;  1887, 
fruit  borne  at  g,  but  it  did  not  mature  (as  shown 
by  the  small  size  of  the  scar) ,  and  the  spur  con- 
tinued to  h,  and  there  made  another  fruit -bud; 
the  twin  bud  now  pushed  on  to  /  and  made  a 
fruit -bud,  and  the  spurs  d  and  d  d  are  alive,  but 
evidently  doomed  soon  to  perish;  1888,  fruits 
were  borne  at  /  and  h  (the  bearing  year  having 


20.     An  old  pear  spur 

been  changed),  but  neither  of  them  matured,  the 
side  spurs  pushed  on  to  //  and  Ji  h,  and  an  at- 
tempt was  made  at  fruit -bearing  at  d;  1889,  all 
shoots  elongated  and  all  end  in  leaf -buds,  show- 
ing that  the  change  in  the  bearing  year  had  in- 
terfered with  the  normal  development,  for  this 
should  have  been  the  year  of  fruit.  Our  spur, 
therefore,  is  ten  years  old;  it  has  borne  good 
fruits  three  times,  and  has  made  five  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  at  fruit -bearing;  some  of  the 
branches  are  too  weak  for  further  usefulness; 


FRUIT -BEARING    OF    PEAR  43 

and  dormant  buds  still  remain  on  the  old  wood 
near  its  base. 

The  struggle  for  existence  in  an  old  pear  spur 
is  still  further  illustrated  in  Fig.  20.  On  five  of 
the  strongest  and  upturned  branchlets  there  are 
fruit-buds.  Some  of  the  branchlets  terminate  in 
the  small  and  pointed  leaf -buds,  and  some  are 
dead.  If  the  reader  has  become  expert  in  read- 
ing the  histories  of  twigs,  he  may  find  in  this 
picture  the  records  of  ten  efforts  at  the  bearing 
of  pears. 

Another  pear  twig  is  drawn  in  Fig.  21.  In 
1895,  a  pear  was  borne  at  a,  and  in  that  year 
two  side  buds  were  developed  (as  they  have 
formed  in  Figs.  13  and  14).  In  1896,  these  two 
buds  gave  rise  to  branches  or  spurs,  each  of 
which  developed  a  fruit-bud  at  its  end,  &  c.  It 
was  on  the  17th  of  April,  1897,  that  the  picture 
was  made.  Three  weeks  later  all  the  buds  had 
burst  (Fig.  22).  Buds  6,  c,  d,  e,  produced  flow- 
ers, and  /  made  only  a  feeble  effort  at  leaves. 
That  is,  all  but  one  of  the  buds  are  fruit-buds. 
In  July,  however,  the  branch  looked  like  Fig.  23. 
Although  several  flowers  had  been  produced  by 
each  of  the  four  fruit -buds,  only  one  flower  in 
the  bud  b  and  another  in  c  persisted  and  set  fruit. 

Another  twig  upon  this  same  pear  tree  was 
drawn  (Fig.  24)  upon  the  17th  of  April,  1897. 
There  are  three  thick,  rounded  buds  which  are 
evidently  fruit -buds.  They  terminate  spurs  which 


21.     Twig  of  a  Bartlett  pear 


23.     The  filial  result. 


FRUIT -BEARING    OF    PEAR  45 

spring  from  the  top  of  the  growth  of  1895.  That 
is,  the  spurs  grew  and  developed  fruit -buds  in 
the  season  of  1896.  On  the  4th  of  May,  the  twig 


24.    Three  fruit-spurs  of  pears. 

looked  as  in  Fig.  25.  The  three  buds  had  pro- 
duced flowers,  only  one  of  which  still  persists, 
and  even  that  soon  fell.  No  fruits  were  pro- 


25.     The  sequel. 


duced.      The   buds   were   too   weak    to   set  fruit, 
although  they  produced  blossoms. 

Still  another  pear  twig  is  seen  in  Fig.  26.     It 
is  evident  that  only  the  lowest  bud  is  a  fruit -bud. 


46 


THE    FRUIT -BUD 


The   others   are   too   small   to  be  fruit -buds.     In 
May  the  twig  was  drawn  again  (Fig.  27). 


THE     FRUIT-SPUR     AS     ILLUSTRATED      IN     THE 
PLUM   AND    CHERRY 

A  spur  from  a  plum  tree  is  shown  in  Fig.  28. 
If  we  begin  with  the  tip  of  the  shoot,  we  deter- 
mine that  last  year's  growth  began  at  c,  the  pre- 


26.     Leaf-spurs    and    a 
fruit-spur  of  pear. 


27.     The  sequel. 


vious  year's  at  ft,  and  the  preceeding  year's  at 
a.  The  lower  side  spur  has  grown  to  a  a,  then 
to  &  6,  then  to  the  end.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 


FRUIT -BEARING     OF     PLUM 


47 


28.    Fruit-spur  of  plum. 


29.     Spur  of  Lombard  plum. 


buds  and  side  spurs  are  borne  usually  near  the 
ends  of  the  growths,  but  the  many  scars  show 
that  buds  were  once  present  on  the  lower  or 
older  parts,  but  have  perished  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  The  spur  differs  greatly  from 


OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY 


48 


THE     FRUIT  -  BUD 


those  of  the  pear,  in  the  fact  that  the  buds  are 
in  twos  or  threes  rather  than  single.      It   is  diffi- 


30.  Spur  of  Satsumaplum.  31.  Buds  and  spurs  of  cherry. 

cult  to  distinguish  which  are  leaf-buds  and 
which  fruit -buds.  The  character  of  the  buds  is 
to  be  determined  from  their  positions  rather 
than  from  their  shapes.  The  first  point  to 


FRUIT -BEARING    OF    PLUM 


49 


Cherry  spurs. 


notice  in  determining  which  are  leaf-buds  and 
which  fruit -buds  is  the  direction  of  growth  of 
the  entire  spur.  The 
pear  spur  (Fig.  19) 
is  crooked  and  forked' 
because  the  fruit- 
buds  are  terminal ; 
if,  therefore,  the  plum 
spur  is  straight  or 
continuous  in  growth, 

it  is  because  the  terminal  buds  are  leaf -buds. 
The  side  buds  may  therefore  be  inferred  to  be 
fruit-buds.  The  reader  should  examine  a  plum 

tree  in  either  flower  or 
fruit  'for   further    light 
upon    this    point;     and 
from  all  his  observations 
he  will  be  able  to  satisfy 
himself  that  there  are  at 
least  two  general  types 
of      spurs    upon     fruit 
trees, — with    termi- 
nal  fruit -buds   and 
terminal  leaf -buds. 
The  fruit -bearing 
of  the  common  plum 
is  further  illustrated 
in    Fig.    29,    which 

shows  the  growths  of  the  two  last  years.  The 
last  season's  growth  is  from  a  to  e,  and  upon 


The  same  spurs  in  May. 


50  THE    FRUIT -BUD 

this  part  there  are  no  fruit -buds.  The  second 
year's  growth,  below  a,  bears  many  fruit -spurs, 
each  of  which  has  several  fruit -buds,  thus  ex- 
plaining how  it  is  that  plums  are  borne  in  dense 
clusters.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  strongest  spurs 
are  nearest  the  top  of  the  two  years'  growth, 
where  more  sunlight  was  received. 

A  spur  of  a  Japanese  plum,  Fig.  30,  shows 
clustered  fruit -buds.  A  single  smaller  leaf -bud 
is  in  the  center  of  each  cluster.  Japanese  plums 
also  bear  from  twin  fruit -buds  on  the  last  year's 
growth,  in  the  way  of  the  peach  and  apricot. 

A  twig  of  Morello  cherry  is  shown  in  Fig.  31. 
It  is  of  two  years'  growth.  The  division  between 
the  two  years  is  seen  between  2  and  3.  Above 
this  division,  the  buds  are  single  and  in  the 
axils  of  leaves ;  below  it,  they  are  clustered 
on  spurs.  The  rounded  buds  on  these  spurs, 
1,  2,  are  fruit -buds.  Fig.  32  shows  two  cherry 
spurs,  one  a  leaf -spur  and  the  other  a  fruit- 
spur.  The  four  large  buds  on  the  fruit- spur 
are  flower -buds  ;  the  central  one  is  a  leaf -bud. 
Fig.  33  shows  how  the  same  spurs  look  when 
they  have  burst  into  growth. 

THE  PEACH  AND    THE  APRICOT 

The  next  picture  (Fig.  34)  shows  a  twig  cut 
from  a  peach  tree  in  spring  (or  winter).  It  is 
two  seasons  old,  as  shown  by  the  ring  at  a,  and 


FRUIT -BEARING    OF    PEACH  51 

by  the  different  buds  upon  the  two  parts. 
Upon  the  older  portions  there  are  dormant  buds; 
there  are  also  curious  angular  bodies  at  e  e  e. 
We  understand  what  the  dormant  buds  mean, 
but  the  other  bodies  demand  explanation.  They 
are  not  growing  branches,  because  they  have  no 
buds.  The  truncate  or  squared  ends  are  scars. 
These  cannot  be  leaf -scars,  because  no  buds  are 
left  above  them  (and  we  have  found  that  buds 
grow  in  the  axils  of  leaves).  They  must,  then, 
be  fruit -scars  (or  flower -scars). 

If  we  could  have  seen  this  twig  (below  a)  in 
the  spring  of  last  year,  a  piece  of  it  would  have 
looked  like  Fig.  35.  Three  buds  are  borne  to- 
gether, the  two  lateral  ones  (which  are  evidently 
fruit -buds)  being  large  and  thick.  If  it  were 
the  habit  of  the  peach  to  bear  three  leaf -buds 
together,  the  method  of  branching  of  the  peach 
tree  would  tend  to  be  by  threes,  but  we  know  that 
this  is  not  the  fact.  We  know  that  these  objects 
a  a  are  not  spurs  (or  branches),  because  the  leaf- 
scar  is  visible  below  each  one.  That  is,  they  are 
normal  buds,  formed  the  previous  year  in  the  axils 
of  leaves.  If  we  could  go  back  to  this  previous 
year,  we  should  find  the  condition  shown  in  Fig. 
36,  in  which  a  triplet  of  leaves  is  making  this 
group  of  buds;  but  there  are  other  leaves  borne 
singly,  and  in  the  axils  of  these  only  leaf -buds 
are  borne  (as  a  rule).  From  this  it  is  seen  that 
the  method  of  fruit -bearing  of  the  peach  is  very 


36.     The  formation  of  the 
triple  buds. 


34.  Twig  from        35.  Triple 
a  peach  tree,     buds  of  peach. 


37.  Partly  grown 
peach. 


FRUIT -BUDS    OF    PEACH 


53 


different  from  that  of  the  apple,  pear,  plum,  and 
cherry. 

It  must  now  be  determined  why  the  fruit -scars 
are  single  on  the  twig  in  Fig. 
34,  while  the  fruit -buds  are  in 
pairs  (with  a  leaf -bud  between 
them)  in  the  first  place  (Figs. 
36,  35).  Fig.  37  shows  a  half- 
grown  peach  which  has  arisen 
from  one  of  the  buds.  A  flower 
was  produced  from  each  bud, 
but  in  the  struggle  for  existence 
one  of  them  (and  also  the  leaf- 
bud)  perished.  The  twig  in 
Fig.  34  has  no  buds  upon  the 
bodies  which  bore  the  peaches; 
therefore,  these  bodies  are  not 
leaf -bearing  branches  (or  spurs) , 
and  they  do  not  bear  again.  We 
have  seen  (Figs.  36,  35)  that 
these  fruit -buds  are  formed  on 
the  axial  growth  of  the  current 
year,  and  bear  the  next  year, 
and  not  upon  spurs.  Very  short 
fruit-bearing  growths  often  arise 
from  two  or  three -year -old 
wood  of  the  peach,  but  these  are 
really  not  spurs— although  they 
look  like  spurs — because  they 

,  T.      .  ,    .          38.       Fruit-buds    of 

bear  but   once.       It   is    plain,     Moorpark  apricot. 


54 


THE    FRUIT -BUD 


therefore,  that  the  peach -grower  should  always 
aim  to  so  manage  his  trees  as  to  have  a  liberal 
supply  of  new  growths. 

An  apricot  shoot  is   seen  in  Fig.  38.     It  is  of 
two    seasons'     growth.      Upon    the    last    year's 


39.     Short  branching  spur 
of  apricot. 


40.     The  three  buds  with 
but  a  single  leaf. 


growth,  above  a,  the  buds  are  borne  singly,  in 
twos,  or  in  threes.  Normally,  a  bearing  young 
twig  has  buds  in  threes,  as  the  peach  has,  the 
middle  one  being  a  leaf-bud,  but  one  or  two  of 
the  triplet  often  perishes  in  the  struggle  for  ex- 
istence. Below  a  there  are  fruit- spurs,  much  as 
in  the  plum.  These  spurs  in  Fig.  38  are  long  and 
simple,  and  bear  several  buds ;  but  one  often 
finds  branching  spurs,  like  Fig.  39,  reminding  him 


SIMPLE    AND    MIXED    BUDS  55 

of  the  pear,  although  the  apricot  spur  never 
attains  such  great  age  as  the  pear  spur  does.  The 
apricot,  therefore,  makes  fruit -buds  both  upon 
the  current  year's  growth  and  upon  spurs. 

We  have  found  (Fig.  36)  that  the  triplet  buds 
of  the  peach  are  subtended  by  three  leaves.     The 


41.     Struggle  for  existence  among  the  apple  flowers. 

apricot  is  not  so,  for  the  three  buds  are  borne 
in  the  axil  of  a  single  leaf  (Fig.  40).  We  have 
seen  in  Figs.  10,  22  and  33  that  the  blossom-bud 
of  the  apple  and  pear  and  cherry  contains  leaves 
as  well  as  flowers.  These  leaves  persist  through 
the  season  and  aid  in  nourishing  the  fruit.  Notice 
them  in  Figs.  14  and  23.  They  are  also  shown 
in  Fig.  41;  and  this  picture  (as,  also,  Fig.  14) 
shows  how  it  is  that  apples  are  usually  borne 


56  THE    FRUIT -BUD 

singly  although  the  flowers  are  in  clusters  of  six 
or  more. 

In  the  peach,  however,  the  fruit -buds  do  not 
contain  leaves  (Fig.  37),  and,  moreover,  the 
flowers  are  borne  singly.  Fig.  42  shows  that  the 
same  is  true  of  the  apricot.  We  may  say,  there- 
fore, that  the  blossom -buds  of  the  peach  and 
apricot  are  simple,  and  that  those  of  the  apple, 
pear,  plum  and  cherry  are  mixed. 

GOOSEBERRIES,    CURRANTS    AND    JUNEBERRIES 

In  the  gooseberry  shoot  in  Fig.  43,  it  is  plain 
that  the  part  from  a  to  b  grew  the  last  season,  and 
the  portion  below  a  two  seasons  ago.  The  upper 
portion  has  simple  buds,  while  the  lower  portion 
has  what  appear  to  be  elongated  buds,  but  which 
are  really  fruit -spurs.  Each  of  these  spurs,  then, 
bore  a  cluster  of  leaves  last  year,  as  if  it  had 
been  an  apple  spur.  If  the  reader  will  examine 
currant  and  gooseberry  bushes  at  any  time  of  the 
year,  he  will  readily  conclude  that  they  usually 
bear  fruits  on  spurs,  but  that  these  spurs  gener- 
ally bear  only  two  or  three  times. 

The  two-year-old  twig  of  a  black  currant  is 
drawn  in  Fig.  44.  It  was  taken  in  spring,  and 
yet  the  remains  of  the  old  fruit -stems  persist  on 
each  of  the  spurs.  The  point  of  attachment  of 
these  stems  shows  the  lengths  of  the  spurs  of 
the  year  before,  and  the  crook  in  the  spur  at 
that  point  shows  that  the  fruit -bud  was  terminal 


\ 


42.     The  single  and  leafless  flowers 
of  apricot. 


Gooseberry 
shoot. 


44.     Fruit-bearing  of  the  black 
currant. 


58  THE     FRUIT -BUD 

(as  it  must  be  in  Fig.  43,  since  the  spur  con- 
tains but  a  single  bud),  also  that  the  subsequent 
growth  of  the  spur  arose  from  a  side  bud.  In 
fact,  two  of  the  spurs,  a,  &,  developed  two  side 
buds.  The  fruit -bearing  of  the  gooseberry  and 


45.     Bearing  shoot  of  dwarf  juneberry. 

black-currant,  therefore,  is  by  means  of  spurs. 
The  black-currant  bears  mostly  on  last  year's 
wood,  but  the  red  and  white  currants  bear 
mostly  on  two -year -old  wood. 

The  juneberry  twig  (Fig.  45)  shows  that  this 
plant  also  bears  upon  spurs  ;  and  upon  each  of 
the  four  spurs  shown  in  the  illustration  the  old 
fruit -stem  still  remains.  The  best  clusters  the 


A    MAPLE     SHOOT 


59 


following    year   may    be   expected  to   come   from 
the  strong  terminal  buds. 

CO-TERMINAL   FRUIT-BEARING 

The  expanding  shoot  of  a  maple  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  46.  It  came  from  a  winter  bud  termi- 
nating a  twig.  The  enlarging  scales  of  this  bud 
are  at  1,  2,  5,  4.  This  shoot  bears  not  only 


46.     Expanding  shoot  of  Norway  maple. 


60  THE    FRUIT -BUD 

flowers  but  leaves,  and  the  shoot  is  growing. 
That  is,  the  axis  has  elongated  considerably 
since  the  opening  of  the  bud. 

A  quince   flower   is  drawn   in   Fig.  47.     This, 


Flowering  shoot  of  quince. 


too,  is  borne  upon  a  leafy  shoot  of  the  season. 
That  is,  a  shoot  sprung  from  the  terminal  winter 
bud,  and  after  this  shoot  had  grown  several 
inches  a  flower  was  produced.  Such  methods  of 


48.     Twig  of   quince. 


49.     Branch  of  small-fruited  hickory. 


62  THE    FRUIT -BUD 

flower -bearing  may  be  called  co- terminal,  be- 
cause they  terminate  the  axial  growth  of  the 
season. 

We  can  now  understand  the  winter  twigs  of 
the  quince.  Fig.  48  is  such  a  twig.  There  is  a 
fruit -scar  at  d.  We  know  that  the  shoot  grew 
the  same  year  in  which  the  fruit  was  borne ; 
and  this  is  further  proved  by  the  presence  of 


50.     Cane  of  grape  vine. 

axillary  buds  upon  the  shoot  between  c  and  d. 
Another  fruit  was  borne  at  b.  While  this  latter 
fruit  was  growing,  side  shoots  started  off  in  two 
directions,  one  extending  to  /  and  the  other  to 
g.  During  the  following  winter  the  tip  of  the 
branch  g  died,  and  in  the  spring  two  shoots 
sprung  from  it,  one  growing  to  d  and  bearing 
a  fruit,  and  the  other  to  e  and  not  bearing. 
The  branch  1)  f  made  a  number  of  lateral  shoots, 
for  its  tip  also  had  died  before  the  growing  sea- 
son began.  The  twig  48,  then,  is  four  years  old. 


HOW     GRAPES     BEAR 


63 


In  like  way,  the  reader  may  trace  the  history 
of  any  of  the  hickories  (Fig.  49),  butternut  and 
walnuts,  in  all  of  which  the  fruit -bearing  is 
also  co -terminal. 

GRAPES  AND   BRAMBLES 

A  bit  of  a  grape  cane,  with  a  bud,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  50.  In  May,  this  bud  has  given  rise  to  a 
shoot  like  that  in  Fig.  51.  As 
the  shoot  grows,  flower -clusters 
arise.  Two  such  clusters  are 
now  well  developed,  and  a  third 
is  forming  near  the  tip;  and 
the  shoot  will  continue  to  grow 
from  the  tip,  a.  This  shoot, 
in  fact,  is  to  become  a  cane, 
growing  several  feet  in  length 
before  the  close  of  the  season; 
but  the  flowers  will  not  con- 
tinue to  form,  for  only  two  to 
four  clusters  are  borne,  as  a 
rule,  upon  each  cane,  and  these 
are  all  near  the  base  of  the 
cane.  In  the  fall,  the  grapes 
hang  from  the  lower,  or  older, 
joints  (Fig.  52),  the  cane 
continuing  in  the  direction  a;  5L  The  young  grape 
and  from  some  or  all  of  the 
axillary  buds  on  this  cane,  other  flower -bearing 
shoots  may  arise  the  following  year.  Therefore, 


64  THE    FRUIT -BUD 

we  may  say  that  the  fruit  of  the  grape  is  borne 
upon  growing  shoots  of  the  season  which  arise 
from  wood  of  the  last  year's  growth.  If,  there- 
fore, two  to  four  clusters  of  grapes  may  be  ex- 
pected from  each  bud  upon  the.  recently  matured 
canes,  the  pruner  can  determine  how  many  buds 
he  shall  leave, — that  is,  how  long  he  shall  cut 
his  canes, — to  produce  a  given  crop. 

In  fall  and  winter,  a  recent  black  raspberry 
cane  looks  like  A,  Fig.  53.  In  the  following 
summer,  the  bud  above  A  sends  forth  a  shoot,  the 
remains  of  which  may  persist  the  next  winter  and 
look  like  B.  This  shoot  bore  several  leaves,  and 
a  cluster  of  berries  at  its  top.  The  red  rasp- 
berry, blackberry  and  dewberry  behave  in  a  simi- 
lar way.  These  plants  are,  therefore,  like  the 
grape  in  the  fact  that  they  bear  fruit  upon  leafy 
shoots  of  the  season  which  arise  from  wood  of 
the  previous  year's  growth;  but  they  differ  from 
the  grape  in  the  fact  that  the  fruit  is  borne  on 
the  end  of  the  shoot,  and  the  shoot,  therefore, 
cannot  itself  develop  into  a  long  cane.  In  other 
words,  the  canes  of  the  brambles  arise  each  year 
from  the  root — and  bear  the  following  year — 
whereas  the  canes  of  the  grape  arise  from  other 
canes. 

Very  many  plants  bear  their  flowers  or  fruits  at 
the  ends  of  leafy  shoots  of  the  season,  and  their 
fruit -bearing  might,  therefore,  be  said  to  be  co- 
terminal  (page  59) ;  but  this  term  should  be 


52.     The  fruit-bearing  of  the  grape. 


66 


THE    FRUIT -BUD 


restricted  to  those  plants  in  which  the  leafy  shoot 
is  short   and   reaches   its   growth   soon  after   the 

opening    of   the  win- 
ter bud. 

Roses,    some     spi- 
reas,  and  many  orna- 
mental   plants,    bear 
flowers  at  the  ends  of 
long    summer   shoots 
(see    Fig.    54);     and 
in    such    plants     the 
aim  should   be,   if   many  flowers  are 
desired,  to  secure   many  strong   sea- 
sonal growths. 


HOW  TO    TELL    THE   FRUIT-BUDS 

We    have    now    found    that    there 
are  three  elements  or   factors  which 
aid   one   in  determining    the    places 
at  which  the  plant  is  to  bear  flow- 
ers or   fruits, — the    habit  or  manner 
of  growth  of  the  plant,  the  character 
of     the    spurs,    and    the     looks     of 
the    buds.      Thus,    we    are    to    look 
for  the  fruit -buds  on  the  last  year's 
growth  of  the  peach  and   black  cur- 
53.  Fruit-bearing  rant,  upon  two  or  three  years'  growth 
•aspberry.    Q^  ^  re(j  curran^  generally  on  spurs 
of  apple,  pear  and  plum;   and  the  like.    We  know 
that,  as  a  rule,  a  spur  which  matures  fruit    one 


HOW    TO    TELL    FRUIT -BUDS  67 

year  produces  only  leaf -buds  that  year,  and  makes 
blossom  buds  the  following  year.  We  know  th,at 
these  fruit -buds  are  often  formed  a  season  ahead, 
in  which  case  they  can  be  distinguished  in  the 


54.     Flower-bearing  of  wild  rose  (Rosa  Sayi). 

winter,  as  in  most  of  the  fruits ;  but  we  also 
know  that  in  roses,  and  some  other  plants,  there 
is  no  way  of  telling  in  advance, — except  by  ex- 
perience,— how  many  flower -buds  there  will  be. 


68 


THE    FRUIT -BUD 


We  have  found  that  the  winter  fruit -bud  is 
generally  larger,  thicker  and  rounder  than  the 
winter  leaf -bud,  and  it  is  usually  more  pubescent 


55.  Leaf -bud  of 
pear. 


56.  Flower-bud  of 
pear. 


57.  Leaf -bud  of 
apricot. 


or  fuzzy.  There  are  weak  fruit-buds,  however, 
which  are  very  like  leaf -buds;  and  these  weak 
buds  usually  do  not  carry  fruit 
to  maturity. 

The  only  positive  means  of 
determining  fruit -buds  is  by 
an  examination  of  the  interior. 
The  winter  bud  is  really  an  em- 
bryo branch.  It  contains  in 
miniature  or  in  rudiment  as 
many  leaves  or  flowers  as  the 
resulting  branch  is  normally  to 
bear.  With  a  razor  or  very 

58.        Flower-bud      of      i  •,      •  /?  ,      -,    • 

apricot  in   section.       sharP   kmfe>    Cut     a   bud  m   tw° 

lengthwise.  Sharp  eyes  can  de- 
termine between  leaf -buds  and  fruit -buds  in 
apples,  pears,  and  most  other  fruits  ;  but  it  is 
best  to  have  a  small  lens.  A  common  pocket 


THE    FRUIT -BUD    OP    PEARS 


69 


lens  is  usually  sufficient.  If  the  section  of  a 
pear  or  apple  bud  looks  like  Fig.  55,  it  is  a 
leaf -bud;  if  like  Fig.  56,  it  is  a  flower -bud. 


59.     Pear  spur  with 
leaf -buds. 


60.     Pear  spurs,  E  with  three 
fruit-buds. 


The  globular  bodies  in  the  latter  are  the  mini- 
ature unopened  flowers;  one  sees  them  further 
expanded  in  Fig.  10.  The  imbricated  plates  in 
Fig.  55  are  bud -scales  and  leaves;  one  sees 
them  expanded  in  Fig.  11.  A  leaf -bud  of  apri- 


70 


THE    FRUIT -BUD 


cot  is  seen  in  section  in  Fig.  57.  A  flower -bud 
(taken  after  it  had  begun  to  swell)  is  shown 
enlarged  in  Fig.  58. 

The  pictures  will  aid  the  inquirer  in  deter- 
'mining  the  fruit-buds  in  pears  and  apples;  and 
discussions  in  Chapter  IV.  may  also  help  him 


61.     Tips  of  pear  shoots;    2  has  fruit-buds. 


to  understand  them.  Fig.  59  is  a  pear  spur.  In 
1897,  it  bore  fruit  at  its  end,  a,  and  two  side 
spurs,  each  terminated  by  a  leaf -bud,  arose  from 
below  the  fruit.  In  1898,  these  two  branches 
may  be  expected  to  produce  fruit -buds  and  to 
bear  in  1829.  Fig.  60  shows  a  terminal  leaf- 
bud  at  A,  and  three  terminal  fruit-buds  at  E. 
Below  these  three  is  a  leaf -bud.  These  two 
twigs  in  Fig.  60  are  short  spurs. 

In  Fig.  61  are  shown  the  tips  of  three  strong 


THE    FRUIT -BUD    OF    APPLES 


71 


top  shoots  from  a  dwarf  pear  tree.  Shoot  1  is 
terminated  by  a  leaf -bud,  and  shoot  2  by  four 
fruit -buds.  During  the  season,  the  end  of  shoot 
3  was  injured.  The  dead  tip  is  still  seen  at  e. 
Two  side  buds  developed,  and  there  was  a  great 
deposition  of  tissue  below  each  one  ;  but  both 
of  these  buds  are  still  leaf -buds.  (See  Chapter 
IV.  for  further  discussion  of  this  common  occur- 
rence.) 

Two  apple  spurs  are  reported  in  Fig.  62.  One, 
s,  ends  in  a  leaf-bud,  and  the  other,  o,  in  a  fruit- 
bud.  Both  set  fruit  the  year 
before,  but  the  fruits  did  not 
persist.  Fig.  63  shows  tips  of  3KI  d 

strong  apple  shoots.     At  d  is 


62.  Apple  spurs;  o  has  a 
fruit -bud. 


63.  Tips  of  apple  shoots : 
e  is  a  fruit-bud. 


a   leaf -bud   and   at  e  a  fruit -bud.     Observe  that 
the  stoutest  twigs  bear  the  fruit -buds. 

In  some  cases,  the  two  sexes — the  stamens  and 
pistils — are  in  different  flowers  on  the  same  plant, 
and  in  a  few  trees  (as  willows  and  poplars)  they 


72 


THE    FRUIT  -BUD 


are   on  different    plants.     Plants   are   said    to    be 
monoecious    when    the    stamens    and    pistils    are 
separate  on  the   same  plant,  and   dioecious  when 
they  are   on  different   plants.      In  both  cases,  it 
is   necessary   that  the   inquirer   should    find    two 
kinds   of    blossom -buds,    if   he  desires    to   locate 
the    parts.       Fig.    64    is    a    twig  from   a    filbert 
taken   in  winter.       The   catkins,   or    flower -clus- 
ters,    are     two     at     each 
joint.       With      the      first 
warmth  of  spring,  the  cat- 
kins elongate  and  dangle 
in  the  wind.      But  they 
bear    only   staminate    or 
male  flowers.      The  pistil- 
late or  fruit-bearing  flow- 
ers are  hidden  in  short, 
rounded    buds,   and    the 
pistils  do  not  protrude  un- 
til spring.     Fig.  65  shows 
a  twig    of    hazel   (filberts 
and  hazels  are  very  closely 
allied)     taken      in      early 
spring,  and   the   styles   of 
the  pistillate  flowers  are  protruding  from   65.  Pistn- 
the  two  lower  buds.     Other  monoecious 
fruit    plants }  are    the    walnuts,    butter- 
nut, hickories,  and  chestnuts,  but  chestnuts  pro- 
duce their  flowers  in  summer,  and  the  buds  from 
which  fruits   are  to  come  cannot  be  so  well  dis- 


64.  Winter  cat- 
kins   of    filbert. 


WINTER -KILLED     BUDS  73 

tinguished  in  winter  except  by  their  position 
upon  the  tree.  In  the  walnuts  and  hickories, 
the  pistillate  flowers  are  co- terminal,  but  the 
staminate  flowers  arise  from  lateral  winter 
flower -buds  on  the  last  year's  growth. 

If  the  reader  has  followed  the  discussions  in 
this  chapter  he  will  have  derived  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  external  features  of  fruit -spurs 
and  fruit-buds.  It  now  remains  for  him  to  ver- 
ify and  expand  his  knowedge  by  examining  the 
plants  themselves.  It  will  not  be  profitable  to 
detain  him  longer  here.  It  will  be  necessary  only 
to  answer  the  question  which 
he  will  be  sure  to  ask, — how 
to  tell  when  fruit -buds  are 
winter -killed.  It  is  generally 
the  embryo  flowers  which  are  06.  Apricot  buds  live, 
killed  by  cold,  although,  in  and  dead-  Lon^- 

.    .  , .         ,       _  tudinal  section. 

severe  winters,  the  entire  bud 
of  the  mixed  fruit -bud  type 
may  be  killed,  so  that  the 
bud  makes  no  attempt  to  swell 
on  the  approach  of  spring.  The 
normal  color  of  the  interior  of  6L  Peach  buds' live 

and  dead.     Cross 

fruit -buds  is  green  or  greenish.  section. 

When  the  interior  is  black    or 
very  dark  brown,  it  is  generally  safe  to  infer  that 
the  bud   is  dead.     Figs.  66  and  67  illustrate  dif- 
ferences between   live  and    dead    buds,  the   dead 
buds  being  on  the  right  in   each  case.     It  should 


74  THE    FRUIT -BUD 

be  added,  however,  that  much  of  the  reporting 
upon  condition  of  fruit -buds  is  little  more  than 
guessing.  The  surest  way  to  determine  the  con- 
dition of  the  buds  is  to  examine  them  carefully 
under  a  lens  or  dissecting  microscope.  Having 
determined  just  how  a  dead  bud  looks,  in  the 
particular  plant  under  consideration,  the  inquirer 
may  then  extend  his  observations  to  a  more 
general  examination  in  the  field. 

SUMMARY      SYNOPSIS       OF      THE      POSITIONS 
OF     FRUIT-BUDS 

The  positions  of  the  fruit-buds  in  any  species 
vary  with  the  age  and  vigor  of  the  plant,  with 
the  variety,  and  other  conditions  ;  but  the  habit- 
ual modes  of  fruit -bearing  may  be  conveniently 
presented  in  synoptical  form  : 

I.  Flowers    produced    immediately    from    dis- 
tinguishable  winter   buds. 

(a)  Buds  lateral,  and  no  spurs:  Peach,  almond 
(mostly),  Japanese  plum  (in  part),  apri- 
cot (in  part),  filbert,  hazel. 

(&)  Buds  terminal  for  the  most  part,  on 
spurs:  Apple,  pear,  cherry,  plum 
(mostly),  apricot  (mostly),  almond  (in 
part),  currant  (in  part),  gooseberry. 

II.  Flowers  on  shoots  of  the  season. 

(c)  Co-terminal, — borne  in  early  spring  on 
the  end  of  a  very  short  shoot  which 


POSITIONS    OF    FRUIT -BUDS  75 

arises     from     a     winter     bud:      Quince, 
medlar,  hickories,  walnut. 

(d)  Terminal,  or   approximately  so,  on    lateral 

summer    shoots:     Raspberry,   blackberry, 
dewberry,  orange. 

(e)  Lateral    on   strong   shoots    (or    on   canes) : 

Grape,    chestnut,    persimmon,    mulberry, 
olive. 
(/)  Terminal  on  terminal  shoots:     Loquat. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  the  general 
make-up  of  the  plant  cylinder.  The 
young  shoot  is  tightly  enveloped  with 
bark.  We  observe  that  in  many 
plants  the  increase  in  diameter  of  the 
stem  comes  about  by  the  formation 
of  rings  of  new  tissue  (or  new  wood) 
under  the  bark,  and  we  know  that  in 
all  plants  the  growth  in  the  thick- 
ness takes  place  upon  the  inside  of 
the  cylinder,  and  not  upon  the  very 
outside.  It  is  evident,  then,  that 
the  covering  of  bark  must  expand  in 
order  to  allow  of  the  expansion  of 
the  woody  cylinder  within  it.  The 
tissues  must,  therefore,  be  under  con- 
stant pressure  or  tension.  It  has 
been  determined  that  the  pressure 
within  a  growing  trunk  is  often  as 
much  as  fifty  pounds  to  the  square 
inch. 

A  piece  of  an  elm  branch  ten  years 
old  is  drawn  in  Fig.  68.      It  is  an 


68.  Cracking  of 

the  bark  on  an 

elm  branch. 


(76) 


STRETCHING    OF    THE    BARK 


77 


inch  in  diameter,  yet  the  bark  at  the  top  is 
smooth  and  intact.  At  one  time,  the  shoot  was 
not  more  than  one -eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
at  this  point.  The  reader  may  figure  out  how 


69.  Piece  of  bark  from  an 
old  elm  trunk. 


70.  A  dead  branch  and  the  mass 
of  healing  tissue  at  its  base. 


much  this   bark    has  expanded   by  the  combined 
action  of   intercalary  growth  and  stretching. 

The  lower  part  of  the  limb  shows  that  the 
outer  layers  of  bark  (which  are  long  since  dead, 
and  act  only  as  protective  tissue)  have  reached 
the  limit  of  their  expanding  capacity  and  have 
begun  to  split.  The  reader  will  now  be  inter- 
ested in  the  bark  upon  the  body  of  an  old  elm 
tree  (Fig.  69);  and  he  should  be  able  to  suggest 
one  reason  why  stems  remain  terete  or  cylin- 


78  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

drical,  and   why   the   old    bark    becomes   marked 
with   furrows,  scales    and    plates. 

If,  for  any  reason,  the  bark  should  become  so 
dense  and  strong  that  the  trunk  cannot  expand, 
the  tree  is  said  to  be  "bark-bound."  Such  a 
condition  is  not  rare  in  orchard  trees  which  have 
been  neglected.  When  good  tillage  is  given  to 
such  trees,  they  may  not 'be  able  to  overcome  the 
rigidity  of  the  old  bark,  and,  therefore,  do  not 
respond  to  the  treatment.  Sometimes  the  thin- 
ner-barked limbs  may  outgrow  in  diameter  the 
trunk  or  the  old  branches  below  them.  The 
remedy  is  to  release  the  tension.  This  may  be 
done  either  by  softening  the  bark  (by  washes  of 
soap  or  lye),  or  by  separating  it.  The  latter  is 
done  by  slitting  the  bark -bound  portion  (in 
spring),  thrusting  the  point  of  a  knife  through 
the  bark  to  the  wood  and  then  drawing  the 
blade  down  the  entire  length  of  the  bark -bound 
portion.  The  slit  is  scarcely  discernible  at  first, 
but  it  opens  with  the  growth  of  the  tree,  filling 
up  with  new  tissue  beneath.  Let  the  reader 
consider  the  ridges  which  he  now  and  then  finds 
upon  trees,  and  determine  if  they  have  any  sig- 
nificance. In  other  words,  are  the  trunks  of 
trees  ever  perfectly  cylindrical  f  If  not,  what 
may  cause  the  irregularities !  Do  trunks  often 
grow  more  on  one  side  than  the  other! 
Slit  a  rapidly -growing  limb,  in  spring,  with  a 
knife  blade,  and  watch  the  result  during  the 


KNOTS    AND    KNOT-HOLES 


79 


season.  Consult  the  woodpile,  and  observe  the 
variations  in  thickness  of  the  annual  rings,  and 
especially  of  the  same  ring  at  different  places  in 
the  circumference. 

We  have  seen  that  some  of  the  side  branches 
on  the  little  cherry  tree  (Fig.  2)  died,  and 
that  all  the  others  will  probably  perish.  Fig.  70 
shows  a  dead  limb  on  an  oak  tree.  The  limb 
became  weak  because  the  shade  was  too  dense, 
and  because  branches 
above  it  took  more 
than  their  share  of 
food.  Finally,  borers 


71.     A  knot  hole. 


72.     Knot  in  a  hemlock  log. 


and  fungi  attacked  it,  and  it  died.  It  rotted 
slowly  away,  year  by  year  its  twigs  fell,  and 
finally  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  broke  it  off  as  we 


80  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

now  see  it.  As  soon  as  it  died,  it  became  a  men- 
ace to  the  tree,  for  the  rot  in  its  tissues  might  ex- 
tend into  the  trunk.  The  tree  made  an  effort  to 
cover  it  up.  The  tissue  piled  higher  and  higher 
about  its  base,  reaching  for  the  end  of  the 
wound.  The  limb  was  eaten  away  by  decay,  and 
became  smaller  and  smaller  in  diameter,  leaving 
a  cup -like  ring  about  its  base.  Finally  it  broke 
off,  and  a  knot-hole  was  left.  Such  a  knot-hole 
is  seen  in  Fig.  71.  Knot-holes  on  the  bodies 
of  trees,  then,  are  the  cavities  left  by  dead  and 
decaying  limbs. 

A  hemlock  log,  split  lengthwise,  is  drawn  in 
Fig.  72.  A  knot  extends  to  the  center.  This 
knot  is  the  remains  of  a  limb,  and  is  nearly  as 
old  as  the  trunk,  because  it  starts  from  the  very 
center ;  that  is,  the  limb  sprung  off  when  the 
tree  was  a  mere  sapling.  The  probability  is 
that  it  is  just  one  year  younger  than  the  trunk, 
for  branches  usually  start  only  on  the  second 
year's  wood,  unless  some  stress  of  circumstances 
starts  out  the  older  and  dormant  buds.  The 
limb  finally  died  and  broke  off,  and  the  stub 
was  buried.  The  tissue  has  now  grown  out  to 
the  end  of  the  stub,  and  nothing  remains  but 
to  close  over  the  hole.  If  the  limb  had  rotted 
away,  a  squirrel  or  a  woodpecker  might  have 
taken  up  his  quarters  in  the  cavity.  The  wood- 
chopper,  however,  found  only  a  knot ;  and  a 
board  sawed  from  the  log  would  have  had  a 


IMPROPER    CUTTING     OF    LIMBS 


81 


knot  whenever  the  saw  cut  across  the  old  stub. 
If  the  knot  were  loose,  it  would  fall  out,  and 
the  board  would  have  a  knot-hole.  Knots  and 
knot-holes  in  boards,  therefore,  represent  cross  - 


73.  Improper  cutting  of  a  limb.          74.  Proper  cutting  of  a  limb. 

sections  of  branches  ;  and  each  one  is  the  record 
of  an  event  in  the  history  of  the  tree. 

A  limb  was  sawn  from  a  tree.  Several  years 
afterwards  a  drawing  was  made  of  the  stub 
(Fig.  73).  The  limb  had  not  yet  healed-in. 
The  reason  is  apparent:  the  stub  had  been  left 
so  long  that  the  tissue  had  not  yet  been  able  to 
pile  up  over  it,  and,  having  no  life  in  itself, 
F 


82  THE    HEALING    OP    WOUNDS 

the  branch  could  not  make  healing  tissue  of  its 
own.  The  stub  is  now  a  monument  to  the  man 
who  pruned  the  tree.  Fig.  74  shows  how  an- 
other limb  was  cut,  and  although  the  wound  is 
not  nearly  so  old  as  the  other,  it  is  being  rap- 
idly closed  in.  There  are  most  important  prac- 
tical lessons,  then,  to  be  learned  from  this  study 
of  knot-holes, — two  of  which  are  that  nature 
is  a  most  heroic  pruner,  and  that  limbs  must 
be  sawn  off  close  to  the  parent  branch  if  the 
wounds  are  to  heal  well. 

THE  NATURE    OF    THE    WOUND 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  give  the  reader  a 
general  view  of  the  practical  problems  involved 
in  the  expansion  of  trunks  and  the  healing  of 
wounds.  It  will  be  profitable,  however,  to  give 
some  of  the  problems  more  specific  attention. 

The  increase  in  diameter  of  the  stem  or  trunk 
is  made  by  the  growth  of  cells  from  the  cambium, 
which  is  a  tissue  lying  upon  the  outside  of  the 
woody  cylinder  and  beneath  the  bark.  From  its 
inside,  the  cambium  produces  wood,  and  from  its 
outside,  it  produces  the  soft  or  inner  bark.  As 
the  outer  bark  is  ruptured  by  the  expansion  of 
the  stem,  portions  of  the  inner  bark  give  rise  to 
the  corky  external  and  protective  layers.  A  mere 
abrasion  or  surface  wound,  which  does  not  expose 
the  wood,  is  healed  by  the  formation  of  new  cork 


THE    CALLUS 


83 


cells  from  the  inner  bark;  but  a  wound  which 
exposes  the  wood  is  healed  by  growth  from  the 
cambium . 

The  cambium,  then,  is  the  active,  living  tissue 
of  the  plant  cylinder.  The  wood  cells  soon  be- 
come lifeless,  and  have  no  power  to  grow  or  to 
multiply.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  when  a 


75.     Cross-section  of  callus  on  an  apple  tree. 

limb  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  is  cut  off,  the 
exposed  hard  wood  can  never  heal,  as  a  wound 
heals  in  flesh.  The  pressure  on  the  cambium 
being  relieved,  however,  excessive  growth  arises 
from  it  and  from  the  inner  bark,  and  a  mass  of 
tissue,  known  as  a  callus,  rolls  out  over  the  wound 
and  covers  it.  Fig.  74  is  an  excellent  picture-  of 
this  callus  ring.  The  ring  will  eventually  cover 
the  wound;  and  if  a  longitudinal  section  of  the 
healed  wound  were  then  made,  we  should  find  the 
condition  shown  in  Fig.  75, — the  end  of  the  old 
stub  remaining  as  sharp-cut  as  it  was  when  left 


84  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

by  the  saw,  and  capped  over  with  wood,  much 
as  a  fruit -jar  is  capped  with  a  metal  cover. 

This  Fig.  75  is  one  of  the  most  important  pic- 
tures in  the  book,  and  it  is  drawn  most  accurately 
from  a  normal  and  average  specimen.  It  is  im- 
portant because  it  shows  that  the  end  of  the  old 
stub  has  no  organic  or  vital  connection  with  the 
callus  which  covers  it,  but  it  is  merely  hermeti- 
cally sealed  in,  as  a  nail  or  a  plug  of  wood  might 
be.*  So  far  as  the  vital  functions  of  the  tree  are 
concerned,  this  stub  is  a  foreign  and  useless  body; 
and  no  dressing  can  be  expected  to  hasten  the 
healing -over  process. 

The  callus  ring  grows  rapidly  for  a  year  or  two. 
But  hard  bark  forms  on  this  callus,  as  it  does  on 
other  growing  wood,  and  tension  or  pressure 
thereby  arises  and  checks  the  growth.  This  bark 
even  forms  on  the  under  side  or  lip  of  the  callus. 
Over  the  end  of  the  stub  in  Fig,  75  there  is  a 
thin  layer  of  bark.  We  have  already  found  that 
slitting  the  bark  upon  a  trunk  relieves  the  pres- 
sure and  allows  of  extra -rapid  growth  at  that 
point.  Suppose,  then,  that  if  the  callus  ceases 
to  grow,  the  operator  make  a  circular  cut  with  a 
knife -point  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  callus -roll ! 

In  surface  wounds  which  expose  the  wood,  the 
callus  also  forms  from  the  cambium  and  covers 
the  denuded  area.  If  the  injury  does  not  extend 


*If  the  reader  desires  to  know  how  a  graft-stub  is  buried,  he  may  con- 
sult Fig.  133  in  the  last  edition  of  "The  Nursery-Book." 


WHY    SHOULD    WOUNDS     HEAL?  85 

below  the  sapwood,  or  if  the  wood  has  not  dried 
out  and  died,  the  callus  may  make  a  vital  connec- 
tion with  the  exposed  surface  of  the  wound. 

The  reader  now  wants  to  ask  what  purpose 
the  healing  of  the  wound  may  serve  the  plant. 
The  healing  serves  as  a  protection.  It  prevents 
or  checks  evaporation  from  the  exposed  parts,  and 
prevents  decay  by  protecting  the  wood  from  the 
weather  and  by  excluding  bacteria  and  fungi.  A 
rotten  heart,  or  rotten  wood  of  any  kind,  is  a 
diseased  condition;  and  this  disease  is  the  work 
of  living  organisms. 

The  exposed  wood  dies.  It  cracks  and  checks. 
The  surface  collects  dust,  which,  with  the  dead 
cells,  makes  a  thin  soil  in  which  germs  find  con- 
genial conditions  for  growth.  Even  after  the 
wound  is  covered  by  the  callus,  the  mycelium  of 
the  fungi  may  continue  to  extend  itself  in  the 
wood,  often  reaching  the  heart  and  causing  the 
trunk  to  become  hollow.  Normally,  the  heart  of 
a  tree  should  never  decay;  but  sooner  or  later, 
most  trees  are  exposed  to  injuries,  either  in  top 
or  root,  through  which  the  organisms  of  destruc- 
tion may  enter. 

The  pictures  will  help  us  to  understand.  Fig. 
76  shows  a  cross -section  of  a  maple  trunk  in 
which  a  nail  is  imbedded.  The  wood  closed  tight 
about  it  and  no  harm  resulted.  Now,  this  was 
the  nail  upon  which  a  sugar -maker  hung  his 
bucket.  Just  below  it  was  the  tap-hole;  and  this 


86 


THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 


hole,  now  completely  covered  by  the  wood,  is  seen 
in  Fig.  77.  But  mischief  has  come  to  pass.  The 
tap-hole  was  an  open  wound,  and  fungi  entered; 


76.     Nail  buried  in  the 
wood. 


77.     Tap-hole  buried  in 
the  wood. 


and  the  discolored  tissue   shows   the   progress  of 
the  decay. 

Pictures  of  ash  logs  are  shown  in  Fig.  78.  The 
one  on  the  right  had  a  perfect -looking  trunk, 
although  a  scar  was  discernible  at  one  point.  A 
section  of  the  trunk  shows  that  a  large  limb  was 
once  broken  off  and  its  stump  completely  buried 
under  the  new  tissue;  but  the  log  is  rotten- 
hearted  (a),  and  the  decay  of  the  old  stump  (bj 


THE    ROTTEN    HEART 


87 


shows  where  the  mischief  began.  The  stnmp  on 
the  other  log  is  not  yet  closed  in,  and  its  end  is 
decayed;  and  a  colored  streak  (c)  running  down 
the  heart  of  the  old  limb  shows  the  trouble  that 
is  coming. 

A  hickory  stub  has  been  covered  (Fig.  79),  and, 
from  outside    appearances,  the   tree  is  now  safe; 


78.     Disease  in  ash  trunks. 

but  a  section  (Fig.  80)  shows  that  decay  began 
before  the  healing  was  complete,  and  the  injury 
is  already  serious.  Even  in  the  apple  stub  in 
Fig.  75,  wound -rot  is  serious.  The  rougher  the 
surface  of  the  wound,  the  greater  is  the  likeli- 


88  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

hood    that    disease   will   gain   an   entrance.      On 
perfectly  smooth   and   solid  wounds,  the   greatest 


79.    A  healed-in  stump. 

danger  is  on  the  lower  edge,  where  the  up -rolling 
callus -ring  forms  a  cup  which  holds  water. 

It  would  be  untrue  to  conclude  that  decay  fol- 
lows from  all  serious  and  exposed  wounds.  Fig. 
81  shows  a  section  of  a  maple  log,  in  which  the 


THE    ROTTEN    HEART 


89 


buried  stump  is  hard  and  sound;  but  such  in- 
stances are  the  exception,  particularly  in  humid 
climates. 

We    are    now    able    to    understand    that    while 


80.     The  stump  is  diseased. 

dressings  or  applications  to  the  wound  cannot 
directly  hasten  the  healing  process  (page  84), 
they  may  aid  it  by  preventing  the  decay  of  the 
parts,  and  they  may  be  the  means,  thereby,  of 


OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY 


90 


THE     HEALING     OF     WOUNDS 


saving  the  tree.  That  is,  dressings  are  preven- 
tive, not  curative  ;  and  in  this  they  are  akin  to 
the  antiseptic  dressings  of  the  surgeon,  which 


A  sound  knot. 


prevent  contamination  of  the  wound  and  thereby 
allow  nature  to  heal  it. 

In  order  to  present  another  view  of  wood  decay 
as  a  result  of  pruning,  I  have  asked  my  col- 
league, B.  M.  Duggar,  to  prepare  a  few  para- 
graphs on  the  subject,  and  these  now  follow: 

"  The  exposed  surface  left  by  the  pruning  saw 


THE    WOUND     DISEASES  91 

is  a  mechanical  injury  as  truly  as  the  mark  of 
the  whiffle- tree  or  of  the  wind.  If  this  exposed 
surface  is  not  cared  for,  it  may  prove  an  inlet 
for  disease  and  decay.  Unfortunately,  this 
matter  has  not  received  adequate  attention  from 
mycologists  studying  wound-rot  fungi ;  and  all 
that  we  can  do  at  this  place  is  to  suggest  in  a 
general  way  what  may  take  place,  especially  in 
the  larger  wounds.  It  is  not  to  be  understood 
that  all  neglected  wounds  lead  to  wound -rot  dis- 
eases ;  but  the  point  is  that  they  may  induce 
such  diseases,  since  a  certain  amount  of  death 
and  decay  are  inevitable ;  and  the  larger  the 
wound,  the  greater  the  danger. 

"First,  then,  we  are  concerned  with  the  condi- 
tions which  bring  about  and  encourage  this  rot- 
ting. It  is  well  known  that  when  only  the  corky 
outer  layer  of  bark  is  removed,  another  corky 
layer  is  readily  formed  for  needed  protection ; 
but  when  a  branch  is  sawn  across,  as  in  prun- 
ing, the  wood  elements  are  directly  exposed  to 
the  air.  It  is  then  impossible  for  a  corky  layer 
to  be  formed,  and  it  may  be  several  years  before 
a  callus  will  inclose  the  exposed  part.  The  sap- 
wood  of  this  exposed  area  soon  loses  connection 
with  the  active  functions  of  the  plant,  and  .dies. 
All  heart  wood  is  inactive,  but  in  sound  trees  it 
is  thoroughly  protected  from  the  air,  while  the 
exposed  scar  left  by  the  pruning  saw  is  open  to 
weather.  The  open  tubes  which  make  up  the 


92  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

younger  wood  may  be  blocked  to  a  large  extent 
by  ingrowths  and  often  by  gummy  substances, 
but  this  does  not  give  complete  protection. 
Moisture  is  absorbed,  oxidation  proceeds,  and 
the  dissolved  organic  matter  is  the  beginning  of 
a  fertile  ground  to  which  wind  and  rain  must 
bring  the  germs  of  bacteria  and  of  our  common 
dead-wood  molds.  These  germs  find  lodgment, 
and  sufficient  moisture  for  their  germination  and 
growth.  It  is  a  small  beginning,  but  it  is  suffi- 
cient gradually  to  form  a  soil  more  retentive  of 
moisture  and  full  of  the  products  of  decay, — con- 
ditions more  favorable  for  the  development  of 
wound -rot  fungi. 

"From  what  is  known  of  this  matter,  it  seems 
fair  to  assume  that  bacteria  are  prominent  in  this 
first  slow  process  of  weathering;  but  they  are 
doubtless  only  secondarily  concerned  in  the  deeper- 
seated  injuries  where  the  decay  has  penetrated  to 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  trunk.  In  most 
cases,  they  seem  to  prepare  the  way  for  fungi 
belonging  to  the  toadstool  family.  One  is  every- 
where familiar  with  these  fungi  growing  upon 
dead  logs  or  stumps,  or  even  upon  the  decaying 
parts  of  living  trees.  The  fleshy  parts  which 
we  see  are  produced  at  the  surface  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  spores  or  reproductive  bodies ; 
but  the  truly  vegetative  parts  are  usually  be- 
neath the  bark  or  within  the  tissues,  and  it  is 
well  to  note  how  these  develop  from  the  spores. 


THE    DISEASES    OF    WOUNDS  93 

Germination  consists  in  sending  out  a  few  deli- 
cate threads  from  the  spores.  These  threads 
enter  the  moist,  decaying  parts,  branch  consid- 
erably, and  at  first  confine  themselves  to  that 
portion  which  is  already  dead.  As  they  grow 
farther  and  farther  inward,  they  may  become  so 
well  established  and  so  vigorous  as  to  induce 
decay  of  themselves.  They  may  encourage 
the  further  entrance  of  air  and  moisture,  and 
thus  continually  they  may  be  preceded  by  the 
atmospheric  conditions  necessary  for  their  fur- 
ther action.  At  any  rate,  entrance  to  the 
trunk  may  thus  be  effected ;  and  with  this  en- 
trance local  rotting  is  induced,  and  eventually 
the  decay  may  extend  to  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  trunk.  There  are  many  instances  of  rot 
in  which  the  conditions  do  not  favor  the  forma- 
tion of  the  fleshy  fructification  of  the  fungus, 
and  the  cause  of  the  decay  may  not  be  very 
evident. 

"In  the  case  of  some  trees  used  for  timber, 
and  many  other  deciduous  trees,  there  are  well- 
known  rots  and  decays  caused  by  members  of 
this  toadstool  family,  some  of  them  being  pecu- 
liar to  a  single  species  of  tree,  and  others  very 
general  in  their  attacks.  Some  of  these  fungi 
are  truly  parasitic,  being  able  to  enter  through 
very  small  branch  wounds,  passing  rapidly  to  the 
sound  tissues,  where  decomposition  and  decay 
readily  follow. 


94  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

"In  Germany  the  large,  fleshy,  sulphur -yellow 
punk -fungus,  Polyporus  sulphureus,  is  known  to 
have  attacked  and  caused  decay  of  pear  trunks, 
gaining  an  entrance  through  a  wound.  This 
fungus  occurs  in  America,  and  while  it  is  not 
reported  on  orchard  trees,  I  have  found  it  grow- 
ing luxuriantly  upon  the  wild  cherry,  Prumis 
serotina,  killing  the  trunk,  apparently,  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  below  a  dead  branch. 

"The  common  little  agaric,  Schizophyllum  com- 
mune, I  have  observed  growing  in  clusters  be- 
tween the  new  bark  and  the  dead  wood  on  an 
apple  tree  to  which  the  knife  had  been  severely 
applied  after  sun -scorching,  but  this  fungus 
doubtless  only  aids  decay. 

"Among  pyrenomycetous  fungi,  there  are  some 
which  may  take  advantage  of  the  injuries  from 
pruning.  In  Europe,  Nectria  ditissima  is  known 
on  the  apple  and  bird  cherry,  producing  on  the 
smaller  branches  the  characteristic  canker  spots. 
This  fungus  must  enter  through  abrasions  or 
pruning  wounds,  and  the  decay  which  follows  is 
often  considerable.  Nectria  cinnabarina  is  an- 
other one  of  these  fungi,  common  in  this  country 
on  many  hosts,  and  this  I  observed  last  year  on 
a  large  branch  of  pear,  extending  to  a  considerable 
distance  either  way  from  a  broken  branch  of 
small  size. 

"Rots  and  decays  as  a  result  of  pruning  de- 
serve more  attention,  in  order  that  we  may 


TREATMENT     OF    WOUNDS  95 

fully   understand   the   necessity   for   proper  asep- 
tic  treatment." 

SUGGESTIONS  TO    THE  PRUNER 

If  the  reader  has  grasped  the  principles  involved 
in  this  discussion  of  the  healing  process,  he  will 
be  able  to  arrive  at  many  sound  conclusions 
respecting  the  rational  making  and  treatment  of 
wounds.  He  will  also  see  how  futile  it  is  to 
attempt  to  construct  any  theory  of  the  manage- 
ment of  wounds  from  a  few  isolated  experiments; 
for  the  interpreted  results  of  such  experiments 
often  contradict  fundamental  principles,  and  there- 
fore cannot  be  true,  however  clear  and  unequivo- 
cal they  may  appear  to  be. 

First  of  all,  the  primer  wants  to  know  how  and 
when  he  shall  cut  the  limbs  so  that  they  will  heal 
as  quickly  as  possible.  Let  us  think  about  the 
matter,  and  see. 

A  twig  of  a  peach  tree  was  cut  back  in  the  fall. 
By  spring  it  had  died  back  an  inch,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  82.  This  stump  cannot  heal  over  of  itself. 
If  it  is  ever  inclosed,  it  must  be  buried  by  the 
growth  of  a  branch  which  shall  spring  from  a 
side  bud.  There  is  such  a  bud  on  the  twig,  and 
if  a  branch  arises  from  it,  the  stump  may  be 
overtopped  in  the  course  of  a  few  years;  but  the 
probability  is  that  this  bud  will  not  grow,  because 
the  drying  out  of  the  twig  has  injured  it.  The 
responsibility  must  fall,  therefore,  on  a  lower  bud. 


96  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

Two  dwarf  pear  shoots  are  reported  in  Fig.  83. 
The  one  on  the  left  was  cut  at  some  distance  above 
a  bud,  and  the  dead  and  dangerous  stub  persists. 
The  twig  on  the  right  was  cut  just  above  a  bud, 
and  the  wound  is  already  securely  covered. 


82.  The  dying-back  83.  Poor  and  good  heading-in 

of  a  winter-cut  shoot.  of  dwarf  pear. 

There  are  two  important  lessons  to  be  drawn 
from  these  simple  examples, — the  nature  of  the 
healing  process,  and  the  relation  of  the  length  of 
the  stub  to  the  welfare  of  the  uppermost  buds. 
In  respect  to  the  healing  process,  it  may  be  said 
that  stubs  which  project  far  beyond  a  branch  or 
far  from  a  trunk,  rarely  heal  over.  The  end  of 
the  branch  being  removed,  the  stub  cannot  heal 
itself,  but  the  healing  must  depend  upon  the 
activities  of  other  parts  or  branches.  This  state- 
ment is  an  exceedingly  important  one,  and  we 
shall  see  its  applications  as  we  proceed. 


THE    LIFELESS    STUBS  97 

In  respect  to  the  welfare  of  the  buds  which  are 
near  an  open  wound,  the  pictures  seem  to  tell 
contradictory  stories.  In  Fig.  82,  the  bud  is  in 
danger;  but  in  Fig.  83,  one  wound  healed  over 
because  the  bud  was  near  it.  These  apparent 
contradictions  are  explained  by  two  circumstances. 
The  twig  in  Fig.  82  was  on  a  newly-set,  fall-planted 
tree.  The  roots  had  not  yet  taken  hold  of  the 
soil,  and  could  not  supply  the  moisture  which  was 
lost  from  the  wound.  The  cell  contents  were 
therefore  injured.  The  twigs  in  Fig.  83  were  on 
well-established  trees.  Again,  the  cut  in  Fig.  82 
was  made  in  the  fall,  and  those  in  Fig.  83  in  late 
winter.  Conditions,  therefore,  greatly  modify  the 
problem;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  in 
severe  and  dry  winter  climates,  and  particularly 
with  tender  fruits,  heading -in  of  the  annual 
growths  had  better  be  done  late  in  winter  rather 
than  early  in  winter;  and  this  is  especially  true 
of  recently  fall -set  trees.  The  healing  of  the 
stub  takes  place  most  quickly,  other  things  being 
equal,  when  a  strong  bud  or  branch  stands  close 
to  the  wound,  provided,  always,  that  this  bud  is 
not  injured  by  the  drying  out  of  the  stub.  How 
long  this  stub  may  be  and  not  cause  injury  to 
come  to  the  bud,  depends,  as  we  have  seen,  upon 
circumstances.  If  the  cut  is  made  in  spring,  the 
bud  may  usually  stand  close  to  the  edge  of  the 
wound;  if  it  is  made  in  winter,  the  stub  should 
usually  be  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  In 


98 


THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 


the  pruning  of  trained  trees,  European  gardeners 
often  take  off  the  shoots  in  winter  when  there 
is  time  to  spare,  leaving  the  stubs  two  or  three 
inches  longer  than  desired;  in  spring  an  assistant, 
who  may  have  had  insufficient  experience  to  en- 


84.    In  memory  of  the 
pruner. 


85. 


The  bulge  at  the  base 
of  the  branch. 


able  him  to  block  out  the  pruning,  goes  over  the 
trees  and  cuts  back  the  stubs  to  a  fresh  bud. 

The  reader  has  already  seen  in  Fig.  73  the 
monument  which  a  man  erected  to  his  memory. 
It  is  a  stump  which  is  so  long  that  it  cannot  be 
healed  over;  for,  as  we  have  seen,  a  leafless  and 


THE    LONG    AND    USELESS    STUB  99 

branchless  stump  has  no  life  in  itself.  The  only 
chance  for  this  stub  to  be  healed -in  is  from  the 
activities  of  the  trunk;  but  the  end  of  it  is  too 
far  removed  from  the  base  of  supplies  to  receive 
much  benefit  therefrom.  Having  no  vital  part 
in  the  life  of  the  tree,  it  is  side -tracked,  and  must 
starve.  Fig.  84  is  another  case.  Above  the  stub 
at  the  right  a  cluster  of  toadstool  fungi  has 
found  a  happy  foothold. 

Where  should  these  limbs  have  been  cut? 
There  is  an  enlargement — or  brace — at  the  base 
of  a  limb,  and  this  bulge  is  usually  larger  the 
longer  and  more  horizontal  the  limb.  This  bulge 
is  well  shown  in  Fig.  85.  It  is  a  common  notion, 
— which  the  writer,  much  to  his  humiliation,  once 
aided  to  promulgate, — that  the  cut  should  be 
made  just  beyond  the  bulge,  and  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  the  limb.  This  leaves  "a  stub 
like  that  in  Fig.  86.  The  proper  way,  however, 
is  to  cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  87,  for  all  parts  of  the 
wound  are  then  in  most  intimate  relations  with 
the  trunk,  which  supplies  the  materials  to  be  used 
in  covering  the  exposed  surface.  The  area  of  the 
wound  is  larger,  to  be  sure,  but  this  is  of  minor 
consequence;  and  to  such  large  wounds  it  is 
expected  that  the  operator  will  apply  a  dressing. 

The  writer  has  no  doubts  as  to  the  soundness 
of  the  advice  given  in  the  last  paragraph,  but  he 
is  glad  to  fortify  it  by  two  excellent  authorities. 
Professor  Sargent,  in  his  introduction  to  the 


100 


THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 


American  edition  of  Des  Cars'  pruning  book,* 
says  that  "it  is  necessary  to  prune  in  such  a 
manner  that  no  portion  of  an  amputated  or 
dead  branch  shall  be  left  on  the  trunk.  The 


86.     The  wrong  way  to  make  the  wound.      Side  and  front  views. 

cut  should  always  be  made  close  to  and  perfectly 
even  with  the  outline  of  the  trunk,  without  re- 
gard to  the  size  of  the  wound  thus  made.  This 


*A.  Des  Cars,  A  Treatise  on  Pruning  Forest  and  Ornamental  Trees. 
By  Charles  S.  Sargent,  Boston,  1881. 


HOW    TO    CUT    THE     LIMB 


101 


is  the  essential  rule  in  all  pruning,  and  on  its 
observance  the  success  of  the  operation  depends." 
Des  Cars  himself  speaks  as  follows:  "It  follows 
that  a  wound  caused  by  the  amputation  of  a  branch 


87.     The  right  way  to  make  the  wound.     Side  and  front  views. 

must,  in  order  to  heal  properly,  be  made  perfectly 
even  with  the  trunk,  that  every  part  of  its  outer 
edge  may  be  brought  into  direct  communication 
with  the  leaves  through  the  net -work  of  cells 
destined  to  convey  the  descending  sap." 


102 


THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 


WHEN  TO  CUT  THE  BRANCHES. — At  what  season 
of  the  year  shall  wounds  be  made,  so  far  as 
the  healing  process  is  concerned  ?  There  are 
as  many  opinions  as  there  are  months  in  the 
year.  This  is  the  best  of  evidence  that  there 
is  no  one  season  in  which  wounds  always  heal 
better  than  in  all  other  seasons.  It  is  indication 
that  the  time  of  the  year  at  which  the  wound  is 
made  is  less  important  than  some  other  factor 
or  factors. 

We  have  seen  that  the  healing  of  serious 
wounds  is  a  process  which  depends  primarily 
on  the  cambium.  Healing  cannot  begin,  there- 
fore, when  the  cambium  is  inactive,  as  it  is  in 

late  fall  and  winter. 
We  have  also  seen 
(Fig.  82)  that  ex- 
posed  tissue  may 
die  back  during 
winter ;  and  this  is 
;/,,  particularly  true  in 
'>  ,J  i  j  severe  and  dry  cli- 
mates. There  is 
always  a  tendency 
for  the  cambium 
and  bark  to  die 
about  the  edges  of 
a  wound  made  in  late  fall  or  winter,  and  this 
sometimes  progresses  so  far  that  the  edge  of  the 
bark  becomes  loose.  All  this  is  clearly  a  disad- 


88.     Healing  of  a  wound. 


WHEN    TO    PRUNE  103 

vantage  to  the  healing  process  ;  and  the  check- 
ing of  the  stnb  from  its  longer  exposure  is  also 
to  be  considered. 

On  the  other  hand,  pruning  in  the  growing 
season  of  spring  exposes  the  plant  to  bleeding. 
It  is  not  germane  to  the  present  discussion  to 
consider  the  effect  of  this  bleeding  on  the  plant, 
although  it  may  be  said  that  injury  rarely  fol- 
lows. It  is  said,  however,  that  the  sap  sours 
upon  exposure  to  the  air  and  injures  the  bark 
and  cambium  about  the  edges  of  the  wound. 
Although  this  is  a  very  common  notion,  I  have 
looked  in  vain  for  a  number  of  years  for  a 
single  confirmation  of  it.  Fruit  trees  rarely 
bleed  to  any  extent,  and  on  trees  which  do 
bleed,  it  is  doubtful  if  this  injury  follows.  The 
Japanese  walnut  bleeds  profusely.  On  the  10th 
of  April,  1896,  I  cut  a  limb  two  inches  in 
diameter  from  one  of  these  trees.  The  sap  ran 
freely,  and  kept  the  bark  wet  for  two  weeks  for 
a  distance  of  nearly  two  feet  below  the  cut.  At 
this  writing  (Jan.  15,  1898)  the  wound  looks  as 
shown  in  Fig.  88.  It  is  healing  well  on  all 
sides,  and  there  has  never  been  the  least  injury 
from  the  bleeding.  Moist  wounds,  however,  do  not 
allow  of  the  efficient  application  of  dressings. 

Let  us  now  go  to  the  trees.  In  the  fall  of 
1891,  experiments  were  begun  at  Cornell  to 
determine  the  best  season  for  the  making  of 
wounds  and  the  best  dressings  for  covering 


104  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

them.  The  tests  were  made  on  vigorous  mature 
apple  trees  (Greenings,  Baldwins  and  Kings). 
Branches  were  cut  every  month  in  the  year,  and 
at  various  lengths.  Dressings  were  made  of 
tar,  linseed  oil,  grafting  wax,  white  lead  paint 
and  tallow.  The  results  were  studied  in  the 
winter  of  1895-6.  It  is  unnecessary  to  re- 
count the  full  experiment  at  this  place,  but 
wounds  representing  typical  average  conditions 
are  shown  in  Figs.  89-92,  and  these  we  may 
profitably  examine.  Unless  otherwise  stated, 
these  wounds  are  selected  from  two  very  sim- 
ilar Greening  trees  standing  side  by  side.  One 
tree  is  designated  (1)  and  the  other  (2). 

Fig.  89.—          (1)  cut  Oct.  31,  1891. 

Fig.  90.— b       (1)  cut  Nov.  18,  1891. 

bb     (1)  cut  Dec.  19,  1891,  wood  frozen. 

bbb  (2)  cut  Feb.  23,  1892. 

c       (1)  cut  Oct.  12,  1891. 

cc     (1)  cut  May,  1892. 

ccc    (1)  cut  Nov.  18,  1891. 

d       (2)  cut  Oct.,   1892. 

dd     (2)  cut  Mar.  25,  1892. 

ddd  (2)  cut  Feb.  1892. 

Fig.  91.— e  (2)  cut  June  20,  1892. 

f  (1)  cut  Oct.  12,  1891. 

g  (2)  cut  July  27,  1892. 

h  (2)  cut  Sept.  15,  1892. 

i  (2)  cut  Feb.  23,  1892. 

j  (2)  cut  July  27,  1892.  . 


WHEN  TO  PRUNE  105 

Fig.  91.— k  (2)  cut  July  27,  1892. 

1  Baldwin,  cut  May  26,  1892. 

m  (1)  cut  Oct.  31,  1891. 

n  (1)  cut  Jan.  2!,  1892. 

o  (1)  cut  Jan.  21,  1892,  wood  frozen. 

p  (1)  cut  Oct.  12,  1891. 

Fig.  92.— q  (1)  cut  Oct.  12,  1891. 

r  (1)  cut  Oct.  12,  1891. 

s  (2)  cut  Aug.  26,  1892. 

t  (2)  cut  June  20,  1892. 

u  (2)  cut  May  26,  1892. 

v  (2)  cut  Mar.  25,  1892. 

w  (2)  cut  June  23,  1892. 

x  (2)  cut  Mar.  23,  1892. 

y  (2)  cut  Feb.  23,  1892. 

z  (2)  cut  Feb.  11,  1892. 

zz  (2)  cut  May  26,  1892. 

zzz  (1)  cut  Dec.  19,  1891,  wood  frozen. 

Every  month,  except  April,  is  represented  in 
these  incisions.  Let  us  pick  out  the  wounds 
which  are  healing  well.  They  are  Fig.  89,  all 
of  Fig.  90,  and  e,  f,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  w,  y,  z.  These 
were  made  in  the  months  of  February,  March, 
May,  June,  July,  October,  November,  December, 
— nine  months.  The  wounds  which  are  not  heal- 
ing well  are  g,  h,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  zz,  zzz. 
These  were  made  in  January,  March,  May,  June, 
July,  August,  September,  October,  December, — 
nine  months.  Comparisons  giving  similar  re- 
sults could  have  been  made  on  a  more  extended 
scale  and  for  every  month  in  the  year,  from 


Ideal  results  in  the  healing  of  a  large  wound.     Four  years' 
growth  of  callus.     A  smaller  wound  on  the  lower 
side  entirely  closed. 


WHEN    TO    PRUNE  107 

the  wounds  which  are  not  reported  in  these  pic- 
tures. 

We  are  forced  to  conclude  that  some  factor 
other  than  season  is  the  most  important  in  de- 
termining the  healing  of  these  wounds.  It  re- 
quires but  a  superficial  examination  of  the  pic- 
tures to  show  that  these  important  factors  are 
two, — the  position  of  the  wound  in  the  tree, 
and  the  length  of  the  stub ;  and  of  these  the 
former  is  the  more  important.  Wounds  on 
strong  limbs,  especially  those  which  are  vertical 
or  ascending,  heal  best  (compare  Fig.  89,  Fig. 
90,  and  e,  i,  j,  k,  1,  in,  w,  y).  Very  long  stubs  die 
back,  instead  of  healing  (see  n,  o,  p).  Wounds 
lying  close  to  the  -parent  branch  heal  best,  and 
those  cut  beyond  the  bulge  or  shoulder  are  inter- 
mediate between  these  and  the  very  long  stubs. 
(Compare,  in  the  first  category,  Fig.  89,  b,  bb, 
bbb,  c,  cc,  ccc,  ddd,  e,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  w,  y,  z;  and 
in  the  second  category,  d,  dd,  f,  h,  q,  r,  s,  t,  v,  x, 
zzz.) 

Three  of  the  wounds  were  made  when  the  wood 
was  solidly  frozen.  Of  these,  bb  is  healing  well, 
showing  that  pruning  when  the  wood  is  frozen 
does  not  of  itself  delay  the  healing  process. 
(See  Section  3,  Chapter  IV.,  for  a  further  dis- 
cussion of  this  question.)  Wounds  o  and  zzz 
are  not  healing  well,  but  the  reason  is  to  be  sought 
in  the  position  and  nature  of  the  wound,  not  in  the 
fact  that  the  wood  was  frozen  at  time  of  cutting. 


d  dd  ddd 

90.     The  healing  of  wounds. 


DRESSINGS    FOR    WOUNDS  109 

The  conclusion, — and  my  general  opinion, — 
in  respect  to  season  of  pruning,  so  far  as  the 
healing  of  wounds  is  concerned,  is  this :  The 
ideal  time  is  in  spring,  before  growth  begins 
(late  February,  March  and  early  April  in  New 
York),  but  more  depends  on  the  position  of 
the  wound  in  the  tree  and  the  length  of  stub 
than  on  the  time  of  year. 

DRESSINGS  FOR  WOUNDS. — Having  now  obtained 
a  general  conception  of  the  nature  of  the  healing 
process,  we  are  prepared  to  understand  that  a 
dressing  for  a  wood  wound  must  possess  two 
properties, — it  must  check  the  weathering  of  the 
wound,  and  it  must  prevent  the  growth  of  bac- 
teria and  fungi;  and  it  must  also  be  of  such  a 
nature  as  not  to  injure  the  cambium  and  bark. 
In  other  words,  the  ideal  dressing  is  a  protective 
compound  and  an  antiseptic.  It  does  not  hasten 
the  healing  process,  except  as  it  prevents  decay. 
It  is  preservative  and  preventive. 

It  follows  from  the  above  considerations  that 
the  first  thing  to  be  sought  in  a  wound  dressing 
is  durability.  Paint  and  tar  answer  this  require- 
ment. It  should  also  have  intimate  contact  with 
the  wood.  Wax  and  shellac  do  not  satisfy  this 
requirement,  for  they  tend  to  peel  off  and  to 
crack.  Lead  paint  and  tar  are  antiseptics,  whereas 
wax,  shellac,  tallow  and  the  like,  are  not.  Bor- 
deaux mixture  is  also  an  almost  perfect  anti- 


91.     The  healing  of   wounds. 


DRESSINGS    FOR    WOUNDS  111 

septic,  and  if  it  had  the  power  of  persisting  and 
of  preventing  checking  or  weathering,  it  would 
be  an  ideal  wound  dressing.  On  quick -healing 
wounds  it  can  be  used  with  great  satisfaction,  as 
we  shall  discover  later ;  and  it  is  a  question  if  it 
would  not  pay  to  thoroughly  spray  trees,  from 
which  many  small  limbs  have  been  cut,  with  the 
mixture.  This  advice  has  other  recommendations 
than  its  suggestion  for  the  preserving  of  wounds, 
for  Bordeaux  mixture  is  an  excellent  general  fun- 
gicide; it  cleans  the  trunks  and  branches  of  lichen 
or  "moss;"  and  it  probably  exerts  the  same  in- 
fluence as  the  washing  of  trees  in  softening  the 
bark  and  preventing  the  parts  from  becoming 
bark -bound  (see  page  78). 

Paint  and  tar  are  the  dressings  most  universally 
recommended.  Tar  and  coal-tar  are  popular  with 
foresters,  but  it  is  certain  that  they  often  injure 
the  cambium  and  bark  of  fruit  trees.  Dressings 
of  tar,  and  even  bandages  of  tarred  paper,  made 
to  protect  plants  from  borers,  often  destroy  the 
bark,  particularly  on  young  trees.  Des  Cars 
strongly  advises  coal-tar  for  forest  trees,  but 
makes  this  remark  respecting  its  use  on  fruit- 
trees:  "The  application  of  coal-tar  should  not  be 
made  except  with  considerable  caution  in  the 
treatment  of  wounds  on  drupaceous  fruits  (cher- 
ries, peaches,  plums,  etc.),  and  especially  on  the 
plum  tree.  It  has  often  been  observed  that  the 
bark  of  fruit-trees  of  this  class  has  suffered  from 


92.    The  healing  of  wounds. 


DRESSINGS    FOR    WOUNDS  113 

the  application  of  coal-tar.  This  is  not  the  case, 
however,  with  pome -bearing  trees  (apples,  pears, 
etc.);  to  these  coal-tar  may  be  applied  with  per- 
fect safety."  Card  reports*  that  in  experiments 
in  Nebraska  "coal-tar  seems  to  have  been  a  posi- 
tive hindrance  to  the  healing  process,  not  one 
wound  having  been  reported  as  healing  extremely 
well."  It  is  not  said,  however,  whether  the  tar 
injured  the  tissues,  or  whether  the  apparent  re- 
sults may  not  have  been  due  to  the  position  and 
character  of  the  wound  quite  as  much  as  to  the 
dressing.  In  my  own  experiments,  which  I  have 
already  reported  (pages  104  to  109),  tar  did  no 
damage.  In  fact,  the  rapid -healing  wound  bbb, 
Fig.  90,  was  dressed  with  tar.  In  those  experi- 
ments, paint,  grafting -wax,  linseed  oil  and  tallow 
were  also  used,  but  all  the  differences  in  the 
healing  of  the  wounds  were  evidently  the  result 
of  other  conditions  than  the  dressings.  I  will 
expand  my  affirmation  on  page  109  to  read:  The 
position  of  the  wound  on  the  tree  and  the  nature 
of  the  cut  exert  more  influence  in  determining 
the  healing  than  either  the  season  in  which  the 
wound  is  made,  or  the  kind  of  dressing  which  it 
receives. 

My  conclusion  is,  after  having  had  the  question 
in  mind  for  a  decade,  that  a  heavy  application  of 
lead  paint  is  the  best  all-round  dressing  for  com- 


"Notes  on  Pruning,  Bull.  50,  Nebraska  Experiment  Station. 
H 


114  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

mon  pruning  wounds;   and  this,  I  believe,  is  the 
commonest  opinion  with  careful  orchardists. 

How  TO  MAKE  THE  CUT. — I  have  just  spoken 
of  the  "nature  of  the  cut."  I  refer  to  both 
the  length  of  the  stub  and  the  smoothness  of 
the  wound.  The  length  of  stub  has  been  dis- 
cussed (Figs.  84-87). 

If  the  danger  to  wood  wounds  arises  mostly 
from  the  absorption  of  moisture  and  the  entrance 
of  germs  from  the  atmosphere,  then  it  must  fol- 
low that  a  wound  which  is  smooth  and  solid  is 
better  than  one  which  is  haggled  or  splintered. 
We  can  conceive,  too,  that  the  progress  of  the  cal- 
lus would  be  greatly  obstructed 
by  notches  and  splinters. 

Most  of  my  readers — assuming 
that  I  shall  have  such — need  no 
explanation  of  Fig.  93.     The  dis- 
aster   would     have    been    pre- 
vented if  the  operator  had  cut 
the   limb   as  suggested  in  Fig. 

93.  Careless  pruning.      „  .  .    .     n  -, 

94.  A  cut  is  first  made  as  at  a, 
sawing  the  limb  half  in  two,  and  then  the  cut  is 
made  at  b.  The  stub  is  then  sawn  off  close,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  87.  Every  pains  should  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  splitting  of  the  wound  or  the 
tearing  away  of  the  bark,  for  ragged  wounds 
seldom  heal  without  becoming  seriously  diseased. 
Although  this  is  not  the  proper  place  for  the 


MAKING    THE    WOUND  115 

discussion  of  pruning  tools  (see  Chap.  V.),  it  may 
nevertheless  be  said  that  for  the  severing  of  large 
limbs  no  tool  leaves  a  better  wound  than  a  sharp 
saw.  If  the  wound  is  not  torn  or  split  by  the 


94.     How  to  prevent  the 
splitting  of  the  wound. 


weight  of  the  limb,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
smooth  the  cut  with  a  knife, — as  some  persons 
recommend.  Chisels  leave  good  wounds,  although 
they  are  likely  to  split  the  wound  near  its  upper 
side  when  they  are  operated  from  the  ground 
with  a  mallet.  It  is  surprising  how  careless 
many  people  are  in  the  making  of  wounds  on 
trees.  Axes  and  hatchets  are  often  brought  into 
requisition,  and  the  operator  goes  at  his  work  as 
he  would  at  a  stick  of  timber.  Leonard  Coates' 
remark  will  apply  to  more  states  than  one :  "  Many 
pruners  in  California  have  mistaken  their  voca- 
tion: they  are  carpenters." 


116  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

THE    MENDING    OF    TREES 

Plants  are  exposed  to  injuries  of  storm,  weather- 
ing, and  animals,  and  to  the  disasters  which  result 
from  the  struggle  for  existence ;  and  they  are 
maimed  by  careless  pruners  and  workmen.  Many 
of  these  injuries  can  be  repaired,  and  the  preced- 
ing discussions  will  help  us  to  understand  how. 
A  few  cases  may  be  explained,  however,  as  a 
means  of  further  elucidating  the  subject. 

Label  wires  were  carelessly  left  on  the   trunks 
of   young   trees.      The  re- 
sults are  seen  in  Figs.  95 
and  96.     It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  larger  diameter  is 
above   the  girdle.      This  is 
easy   of    explanation.      We 
have   already  found   (page   17)   that 
the  materials  taken  in  by  the  roots 
are   not  directly   available  or  useful 
in  the  making  of  plant  tissue.     They 
ascend  to  the  leaves,  and  are   there 
95.  The  mischiev-  elaborated,    in   connection   with   ma- 
ous  label  wire,     terial  taken  from  the  air,  into  organ- 
ized   compounds,    or    become    incor- 
porated  with    such    compounds.      These   organic 
compounds — of   which    starch    is    the    chief— are 
transferred  to   every   part   of   the  plant   to   build 
up  its  tissues.      The  transfer  takes  place  in  the 
inner   layers   of    bark;     therefore,  whatever   food 


EFFECTS    OF    GIRDLING 


117 


passes  down  the  stem  is  intercepted  at  the  girdle 
and  is  there  deposited  as  abnormal  tissue.     Fig. 
97  shows  how  a  gir- 
dled  pine  tree  lived,  oi- inches 
and    piled   up    tissue 
above     the     barrier, 
until  the   roots   were 
starved  and   the  tree 


96.    Ruined  by  a 
label  wire. 


inches 

97.  A  girdled  pine.  The  lower 
part  had  four  annual  circles 
of  wood  and  the  upper  part 
eight  circles. 


died.  All  these  remarks  have  a  direct  bearing  on 
the  question  of  ringing,  which  we  shall  discuss 
in  Chapters  IV.  and  V. 


118 


THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 


The  careful  observer  will  often  see  the  callus 
of  wood  wounds  growing  most  rapidly  from  the 
upper  side.  In  Fig.  88  the  bark  has  grown  down 
over  the  wound.  In  Fig.  75,  the  point  of  union 
of  the  opposite  sides  of  the  callus 
ring  is  at  &.  This  stub  stood  hori- 
zontal on  the  tree,  and  1)  was  the 
lower  side.  The  union  of  cion  and 
stock  sometimes  acts  as  an  obstruc- 
tion to  the  free  downward  movement 
of  sap,  causing  a  bulge  on  old 


98.     Suggestion  to  prevent  gall- 
ing of  a  staked  tree. 


99.     Bridge-grafting 
of  a  girdled  trunk. 


top -grafted  trees;  but  this  phenomenon  should 
not  be  confounded  with  the  normally  more  rapid 
growth  of  some  cions,  due  to  the  variety,  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  stock  (see  Fig.  133,  Nur- 


TREATMENT    OF    GIRDLED    TREES  119 

sery-Book) .  The  reader  will  also  notice  the  depo- 
sition of  tissue  above  the  braces  in  Fig.  107. 

We  now  see  the  importance  of  preventing  the 
girdling  of  trees  by  label  wires  and  by  careless 
tying  to  stakes;  but  we  are  also  informed  that  a 
girdle  is  not  necessarily  fatal  to  a  tree.  If  the 
young  wood  remains  live  and  moist,  the  crude 
food  materials  may  pass  up  from  the  roots,  and 
the  plant  continues  to  live  for  some  time,  and  in 
the  case  of  coniferous  trees,  often  for  several 
years.  If  the  girdle  is  made  early  in  the  season, 
the  tree  may  cover  the  girdle  with  bark  the  same 
year,  and  thus  live  on;  but  if  the  girdle  is  made 
late  in  the  season,  the  sap  wood  is  likely  to  dry 
out  and  die,  and  the  tree  to  perish  before  the 
return  of  another  season.  If  it  is  desired  to  kill 
trees  quickly  by  girdling  them,  the  girdle  should 
extend  through  the  sapwood. 

In  the  treating  of  girdled  trees,  it  is  first  nec- 
essary to  see  that  the  exposed  wood  does  not 
become  dry  and  diseased.  Trim  away  the  rough 
edges  of  bark,  apply  an  antiseptic  (a  wash  of 
Bordeaux  mixture  is  to  be  recommended),  then 
cover  the  entire  surface  with  melted  wax*  and 
bind  it  up  with  cloth  bandages.  Fruit  trees  may 


*Many  recipes  for  tree-waxes  may  be  found  in  "The  Nursery-Book." 
The  following  is  excellent:  Into  a  kettle  place  one  part  by  weight  of 
tallow,  two  parts  of  beeswax,  four  parts  of  rosin.  When  completely 
melted,  pour  into  a  tub  or  pail  of  cold  water,  then  work  it  with  the 
hands  (which  should  be  greased)  until  it  develops  a  grain  and  becomes 
the  color  of  taffy  candy. 


OF  THB 

UNIVERSITY 


120  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

be  saved  in  this  way,  even  if  the  girdles  com- 
pletely encircle  the  tree  and  if  they  are  as  much 
as  a  foot  long,  providing  the  trees  are  vigorous, 
and  the  treatment  is  applied  before  the  wood 
becomes  hard  and  dry. 

If  the  tree  is  particularly  choice,  or  if  the  girdle 
is  unusually  serious  or  of  long  standing,  and 
especially  if  the  wounds  extend  into  the  wood, 
it  may  be  advisable  to  supply  a  connection  be- 
tween the  separated  parts  of  the  trunk.  Fig.  99 
explains  how  this  may  be  done.  The  edges  of  the 
girdle  are  trimmed,  and  cions  are  inserted  under 
the  bark  so  as  to  bridge  the  wound.  These  cions 
are  cut  to  a  wedge  shape  on  either  end  as  for 
ordinary  cleft -grafting,*  and  they  are  inserted 
between  the  bark  and  wood.  A  cloth  bandage  is 
tied  about  each  edge  of  the  wound,  to  hold  the 
bark  in  place  over  the  cions,  and  melted  wax  is 
then  poured  over  the  entire  work,  covering  the 
exposed  wood  and  also  the  edges  of  the  bark  for 
a  couple  of  inches  or  more  back  from  the  wound. 
It  will  do  no  harm  if  the  cions  are  buried  in  the 
wax.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  cions  do  not 
send  out  shoots  from  their  buds.  Some  persons 
prefer  to  cut  the  buds  from  the  cions  to  avoid 
this  difficulty,  but  it  is  probably  better  to  leave 
the  buds  on,  inasmuch  as  their  effort  to  grow  may 
hasten  a  union.  Fig.  100  is  a  cross -section  of 

*The  whole  subject  of  grafting  is  explained  in  "The  Nursery-Book." 


BRIDGE -GRAFTING  121 

such  a  bridge -grafted  tree,  as  it  looked  seventeen 
years  after  the  work  was  done.  This  specimen  was 
reported  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker  in  1892  by  Leroy 
Whitford;  the  picture  is  reproduced  from  that  paper. 


100.     Cross-section  of  bridge-grafted  tree. 

Body  wounds  on  trees  may  be  treated  in  the 
same  way  as  girdles, — dress  the  edges  back  to  live 
bark,  scrape  out  all  splintered  and  decayed  wood, 
apply  Bordeaux  mixture  or  paint  (or  other  anti- 
septic), then  cover  with  wax.  Fig.  101  shows 


122  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

such  a  wound  properly  trimmed  and  cleaned.  It 
was  a  case  of  disease  starting  at  a  knot.  The 
knot  has  been  wholly  cut  away,  and  all  diseased 
tissue  is  removed.  If  decay  is  now  checked,  the 
healing  callus  will  soon  cover  the 
area.  This  will  at  once  suggest  what 
is  to  be  done  with  the  dead  patches 
of  bark  left  by  body  attacks  of 
pear -blight,  borers,  injury  from  sun- 
scald,  gnawing  by  horses,  loose  bark, 
and  the  like. 

It  is  but  a  step  from  these  cases  to 
those   of   the  splitting  of   the  trunk 
by   cold,   concerning    the    treatment 
of    which     so    many     questions    are 
asked.       Fig.  102   is  a  sweet  cherry 
tree  which  was  split  to  the  heart  by 
a  cold    winter    and    then   neglected. 
The   bark  has  rolled   back   through 
the  action  of   alternate  wetness    and 
dryness,  the  wood   has  become   life- 
less and  the  crack  has  gaped.     Fig. 
101.  Treatment   103     *s    a     peach    tree    which     was 
of  a  body      similarly  injured;    but   in    this   case 
wound.        the  kark  wag  trimme(j   back   to  the 

quick  as  soon  as  spring  opened  and  the  injury 
discovered,  and  the  area  was  painted  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture.  At  the  end  of  the  same  year,  the 
wound  was  nearly  healed,  and  the  tree  is  prob- 
ably the  better  for  the  accident,  since  the  pressure 


TREATMENT    OF    SPLIT    TREES 


123 


of  a  hide -bound  trunk  has  been  released.  In 
these  cases  of  splitting  it  is  very  important  that 
the  bark  be  trimmed  back  at  once,  before  it  be- 
gins to  roll  and  loosen  it- 
self; for  as  often  as  the 
bark  rolls  the  healing  is 
interfered  with  and  forced 


102.    A  neglected  weather  split. 


103.    A  treated  split. 


further  back  from  the  original  wound.  In  the 
cherry  and  some  other  trees,  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  for  the  bark  to  roll,  and  in  such  cases 
it  is  advisable  to  bind  the  wound  with  cloths, 
having  first  applied  melted  wax  to  keep  the 
parts  fresh  and  soft. 


124  THE     HEALING    OP    WOUNDS 

Among  the  most  difficult  wounds  to  treat  are 
the  rotten  cavities  following  careless  pruning. 
Such  a  cavity  is  seen  in  Fig.  71.  The  decay  has 
often  progressed  so  far  that  it  cannot  be  checked. 
The  things  to  be  done  are  to  remove  all  diseased 
tissue  and  then  to  close  the  cavity.  Cut  out  the 
rotten  and  discolored  tissue  with  a  knife  or  bore 
it  out  with  an  auger.  Then  soak  it  with  an 
antiseptic.  Now  drive  a  plug  of  wood  tight  into 
the  hole  (A,  Fig.  104),  paint  the  surface,  trim  the 
edges  of  the  wound  to  live  tissue,  and  let  nature 
take  her  course.  Large  wounds 
are  sometimes  covered  with  tin 
or  zinc.  This  is  good  as  far  as 
it  goes,  but  the  diseased  tissue 
should  first  be  removed.  It  is 
impossible,  however,  to  cover  the 
wound  so  tight  with  the  metal  as 
to  keep  out  germs.  If  the  cavity 
is  securely  plugged,  and  the  sur- 
104.  Plugging  face  smoothed  and  kept  painted, 
a  cavity.  tlie  resuits  will  usually  be  better. 
What  is  to  be  done  in  such  a  case  as  Fig.  105? 
It  would  probably  be  best  to  cut  off  the  limbs  at 
A  and  B,  and  allow  the  remaining  branch  to  form 
the  top.  In  that  case,  the  wound  at  A  must  be 
trimmed  back  smooth  and  clean,  and  painted  or 
otherwise  protected.  It  may  be  desirable,  how- 
ever, to  save  the  broken  part.  In  that  case,  head 
it  back,  raise  it  into  position,  and  bolt  it  fast. 


TREATMENT  OF  CROTCHES 


125 


An  iron  bolt  may  be  run  through  the  base,  hold- 
ing it  securely  in  place,  and  a  brace  may  be  sup- 
plied higher  up,  as  shown  in  Fig.  106.  These 
bolts  are  run  through  the  trunk  or  branches  and 
drawn  up  with  a  nut.  Both  the  nut 'and  the  head 


105.     In  need  of  repairs. 

of  the  bolt  should  be  large,  so  that  they  will  not 
draw  into  the  wood.  The  bolt  should  fit  tight 
in  the  auger  hole.  When  the  work  is  done,  apply 
paint  or  other  covering  at  the  place  where  the 
bolt  emerges.  The  bolt  will  soon  be  buried,  as 
the  nail  is  buried  in  Fig.  76,  and  the  tree  does 
not  suffer. 


126 


THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 


Very  large  branches  may  be  raised  and  secured 
in  this  way.  Be  careful  to  keep  the  old  split  well 

covered  with  wax  or 
thick  paint.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  apply 
long  braces  in  the 
top  of  the  tree,  it  is 
often  advisable  to  run 
short  bolts  through 
the  branches,  and  on 
the  inner  ends  to  have 
hooks  or  eyes  into 
which  another  rod 
or  a  chain  may  be 
secured,  thus  allow- 
ing for  the  moving 
of  the  branches  in  the  wind.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  support  crotches  and  weak  branches 
by  putting  bands  or  chains  about  them,  but  the 
reader  will  at  once  see  that  this  is  wrong;  and 
Fig.  107  will  fix  the  error  in  his  mind. 

There  is  still  another  way  of  treating  such  cases 
as  Fig.  105.  If  a  stub  is  left  by  the  breaking  of 
the  limb,  the  stump  may  be  smoothed  and  cions 
set  in  it  freely,  the  remaining  top  being  shortened- 
in  at  the  same  time.  One  or  two  good  branches 
may  be  obtained  from  the  cions,  and  the  symmetry 
of  the  tree  be  thereby  restored.  In  Fig.  108,  the 
large  branch  on  the  right  was  grown  from  a  cion 
set  between  the  bark  and  wood  in  a  splintered 


106.     Crotch  held  by  a  bolt. 


BRACING    A    CROTCH 


127 


stub  (which   terminated   at   a)  six   inches   in  di- 
ameter. 

The  ideal  treatment  is  to  prevent  the  crotch 
from  splitting.  This  can  be  done  by  not  having 
the  crotch,  or  by  bracing  it  before  it  shows  signs 
of  weakness.  The 
bolt  (Fig.  107)  may 
be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. A  living  brace 
may  be  grown  over 
the  crotch,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  109  and  110. 
Two  small  limbs, 
preferably  not  larger 
than  the  little  finger, 
arising  from  opposite 
branches,  are  twisted 

Fig.  107.     Right  and  wrong  meth- 
tlghtly     together,    the  ods  of  bracing  a  crotch. 

free   ends    being    al- 
lowed  to   project   as  they  may  beyond   the  oppo- 
site branch. 

In  a  year  or  so  the  bark  of  the  two  will  begin 
to  knit  together,  at  which  time  the  free  tips — and 
many  shoots  which  have  arisen  from  lateral  buds — 
are  headed -back  or  removed.  As  the  branches 
continue  to  unite,  the  leafy  parts  are  curtailed, 
and  in  a  few  years  a  perfectly  solid  and  continuous 
living  brace  will  be  formed  from  limb  to  limb. 
Fig.  109  is  from  an  actual  example,  which  the 
writer  has  had  under  observation  for  more  years 


128 


THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 


than  he  cares  to  admit.  Fig.  110  was  made  in  a 
different  way.  The  brace  is  a  single  branch  aris- 
ing at  the  right.  When  as  large  as  one's  finger, 
it  was  thrust  through  a  slit  made  through  the 
branch  at  the  left,  allowing  it  to  project  two 


108.     A  repaired  apple  tree. 

or  three  feet  beyond  the  wound.  It  soon  grew 
fast,  and  the  free  part  was  then  removed;  the 
result  is  a  perfect  union  and  a  strong  living 
brace. 

In  closing  this  sketch  of  tree  surgery,  I  must 
enter  my  protest  against  reckless  treatment  of 
street  trees.  The  most  wanton  and  inconsiderate 


DUTY    TOWARDS     STREET     TREES 


129 


despoiler  of  shade  trees  at  present  is  the  lineman 
who  runs  telephone  and  telegraph  wires.  He 
generally  has  no  appreciation  of  the  value  of  a 
tree,  and  still  less  of  any  need  of  giving  thought 
to  the  proper  cutting  of  the  limbs.  Everything 


109.    Living  brace  in  a  Talman  Sweet  apple  tree. 

is  secondary  and  subsidiary  to  the  lining  of  the 
wires,  and  the  result  is  that  many  fine  trees  are 
wickedly  sacrificed.  Our  duty  towards  street 
trees  is  vigorously  set  forth  in  the  following 
sketch  by  Professor  Farlow:* 

"I  must  not,  however,  close  my  remarks  on 
this  subject  without  uttering  an  emphatic  protest 
against  the  way  in  which  the  shade  trees  of  our 

*W.  F.   Farlow,  "Diseases  of  Trees  likely  to  Follow  Mechanical  In- 
juries".    Lecture  before  Mass.  Hort.   Soc.,  Mar.  7,  1891. 

I 


130  THE    HEALING    OF    WOUNDS 

cities  and  towns  are  treated.  The  responsibility 
rests  not  only  with  those  who,  perhaps  uninten- 
tionally and  ignorantly,  are  directly  guilty  of 
what  an  enlightened  public  opinion  should  regard 
as  vandalism  ;  but  it  rests  in  part  on  ourselves, 
if  we  do  not  in  all  possible  ways  seek  to  give 
information  to  the  public,  and  attempt  by  all 
legal  means  to  secure  the  enforcement  of  such 
regulations  as  shall  assure  proper  protection  for 
our  trees.  As  it  is,  the  care  of  the  trees  in  our 
public  grounds,  parks,  and  streets  is  too  often 
placed  in  the  hands  of  those  who  are  ignorant 
of  the  principles  of  vegetable  physiology,  and 
tffl,  aA  ^  \  their  efforts  to  prune 

and  cut  down  trees 
are  guided  only  by 
'  what  seems  to  them 
temporary  conven- 
ience, or  by  what 
commends  itself  to 
their  not  infrequently 
perverted  sense  of 
the  beautiful.  When 
the  whim  seizes  them 

110.     Living  brace  in  a  Newtown     and   they   wish '  to   get 
Pippin  apple   tree. 

rid  of  a  stately  tree, 

it  is  only  necessary  for  them  to  say  that  it  is 
rotten,  and  dangerous  because  likely  to  fall. 
Many  times  I  have  seen  trees  whose  shade  could 
ill  be  spared,  cut  down  because  their  trunks  were 


OUR    DUTY    TOWARDS     TREES  131 

rotten,  when  examination  after  they  were  felled 
showed  that  they  were  sound  and  would  have 
lasted  many  years.  It  ought  to  be  considered  a 
crime  to  cut  down  a  handsome  tree — certainly  in 
public  grounds — unless  compelled  by  absolute 
necessity.  When  it  is  thought  necessary  for  the 
public  safety  to  destroy  animals  supposed  to  be 
suffering  from  contagious  diseases,  there  is,  at 
least,  a  consultation,  and  the  opinion  of  experts 
is  asked.  I  hope  that  the  time  will  come  when 
it  will  not  be  allowed  to  cut  down  trees  which 
are  public  property,  except  on  the  advice  of 
those  whose  training  entitles  them  to  be  called 
experts. 

"If  one  is  amazed  sometimes  at  the  abuses  of 
trees  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  their  author- 
ized guardians,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  poor 
condition  of  our  trees  is  principally  due  to  the 
recklessness  of  the  public.  *  *  *  In  most  of  our 
streets  the  trees  are  very  near  the  edge  of  the  side- 
walk, if  they  do  not  project  into  the  street  itself. 
Those  on  the  corners  of  the  streets  are  almost  sure 
to  be  grazed  by  passing  vehicles,  and  as  wagon 
after  wagon  passes  along,  the  grinding  process  is 
kept  up  until  the  wood  is  exposed.  It  is  per- 
haps fortunate  that  such  trees  are  short-lived, 
for  they  become  very  unsightly,  and  when  they 
die,  the  curbstone  can  be  replaced  as  often  as 
is  necessary. 

"Walk   along    any   of    our    streets   where    the 


132  THE    HEALING    OP    WOUNDS 

trees  are  placed  on  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk, 
and  notice  the  effects  due  to  our  general  negli- 
gence. In  some  instances  you  will  find  that 
the  house -owners  have  placed  guards  around 
the  trunks,  and  the  trees  are  symmetrical  and 
have  attained  a  good  size.  But  in  most  cases, 
they  have  been  left  to  take  care  of  themselves. 
Bright  and  early  the  milkman  comes  along  and 
jumps  off  with  his  can,  leaving  his  horse  to 
make  a  scanty  breakfast  by  gnawing  the  bark 
of  the  nearest  tree.  Later  on  come  the  butcher 
and  the  grocer,  whose  horses  lunch  upon  what 
was  left  by  their  predecessor,  inflicting  an 
amount  of  damage  to  the  tree  limited  only  by 
the  length  of  time  which  their  owners  are  pleased 
to  spend  in  conversation  with  the  girls  in  the 
kitchen.  Last  of  all  comes,  perhaps,  the  doctor, 
whose  visits,  if  they  are  not  'frequent,  are  pro- 
portionally long.  He,  at  least,  ought  to  know 
that  trees  cannot  be  wounded  with  impunity. 
No  wonder  that  the  bark  is  not  only  soon  re- 
moved and  the  wood  exposed,  but  since  the 
horse  is  an  animal  which  prefers  the  softer  bark 
to  the  harder  wood,  the  fresh  borders  of  the 
wound  are  repeatedly  attacked,  until  deformities 
of  enormous  size  are  produced,  and,  apart  from 
the  danger  of  fungous  growths,  the  nutrition 
of  the  tree  is  seriously  deranged." 


CHAPTEK  IV 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF    PRUNING 

We  are  now  prepared  to  enter  on  a  discussion 
of  some  of  the  more  fundamental  considerations 
governing  the  rational  pruning  of  plants.  It  is 
difficult  to  write  on  pruning,  from  the  fact  that  no 
two  plants  are  alike,  and  many  and  various  objects 
are  to  be  attained.  It  is  impossible  to  instruct 
any  person  in  pruning  by  merely  showing  him  how 
to  do  the  work  on  a  given  plant ;  for  the  very 
next  plant  may  present  a  new  set  of  problems. 
If  there  are  no  generalizations  or  principles  to  be 
enunciated,  then  writing  on  the  subject  is  well 
nigh  useless. 

It  is  astonishing  how  few  lucid  conceptions  there 
are  of  the  problems  at  issue  in  pruning,  and  of 
the  factors  which  modify  the  results.  There  is  no 
literature  which  seems  to  clearly  analyze  the  whole 
subject,  at  least  from  the  fruit-grower's  stand- 
point, and  to  present  any  consecutive  body  of 
laws  upon  which  the  intending  operator  can  act. 
It  is  unavoidable,  therefore,  that  the  present 
sketch  should  be  far  from  complete  and  satis- 
factory. 

There  are  two  great  classes  of  ideas  concerned 

(133) 


134  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

in  the  pruning  of  plants, — those  which  are  asso- 
ciated directly  with  the  welfare  and  behavior  of 
the  plant,  and  those  which  are  associated  with  the 
mere  form  or  size  to  which  the  plant  shall  attain. 
The  former  includes  questions  of  pruning  proper; 
the  latter  comprises  questions  of  training,  which 
depend  primarily  on  the  taste  and  abilities  of  the 
pruner.  Shall  I  grow  my  trees  to  round  heads  or 
conical  heads,  high  heads  or  low  heads,  one  trunk 
or  two  trunks  ?  Whichever  you  like.  It  is  largely 
a  question  of  personal  preference  and  opportunity, 
as  it  is  whether  you  shall  plow  with  horses  or 
oxen,  build  a  rail  fence  or  board  fence,  or  plant 
Ben  Davis  or  Baldwin  apples. 

Of  all  the  operations  connected  with  the  grow- 
ing of  trees  and  shrubs,  pruning  and  training 
bring  the  person  into  closest  contact  and  sym- 
pathy with  the  plant.  One  shapes  and  cares  for 
the  plant  tenderly  and  thoughtfully,  working  out 
his  ideals  as  he  would  in  the  training  and  guiding 
of  a  child.  There  are  some  persons,  to  be  sure, 
who  cannot  feel  this  sympathetic  contact  with  a 
plant :  they  are  the  ones  who,  if  they  prune  at 
all,  use  an  axe  or  a  corn -knife.  If  a  person  can- 
not love  a  plant  after  he  has  pruned  it,  then  he 
has  either  done  a  poor  job  or  is  devoid  of  emo- 
tion. It  is  a  pleasure  to  -till  the  soil  and  to  smell 
the  fresh  crumbly  earth,  but  the  earth  does  not 
grow;  it  is  still  a  clod.  The  plant  responds  to 
every  affectionate  touch.  Spraying,  that  modern 


WHY    WE    PRUNE  135 

evolution  of  horticulture,  is  not  to  be  compared 
with  pruning  in  producing  a  sense  of  fellowship 
with  plants.  In  fact,  spraying  has  the  opposite 
effect  with  me.  When  I  have  sprayed  a  plant,  I 
am  conscious  that  I  have  besmeared  it,  and  have 
taken  a  mean  advantage  of  a  lot  of  innocent 
and  defenseless  bugs  ;  and  I  want  to  quit  the 
premises  forthwith. 

We  shall  now  try  to  find  a  few  general  state- 
ments, upon  which  we  can  all  agree,  respecting  the 
principles  which  underlie  the  practice  of  pruning 
and  training.  Some  of  these  principles  follow 
from  a  general  consideration  of  the  way  in  which 
a  plant  lives  and  grows,  some  of  them  are  re- 
statements or  summaries  of  discussions  in  the 
preceding  chapters,  and  others  are  suggested  by 
direct  experiment.  All  of  them  are  intended  to 
be  general  truths,  not  statements  of  specific  facts. 
Writings  on  pruning  are  usually  confusing,  be- 
cause they  are  a  mass  of  details,  facts  and  opin- 
ions, with  little  effort  to  arrive  at  laws  or  prin- 
ciples. I  advise  beginners  not  to  read  them. 
Principles  must  come  first  if  practice  is  to  be 
satisfactory.  The  details  are  to  be  worked  out  on 
the  plant  itself,  after  the  operator  has  learned 
why.  Before  entering  upon  this  disputed  ground, 
we  may  pause  to  say  that  the  reasons  for  pruning 
may  be  ranged  under  eight  general  heads: 

1.  To  modify  the  vigor  of  the  plant. 

2.  To  produce  larger  and  better  fruits  or  flowers. 


136  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     PRUNING 

3.  To  keep  the  plant  within  manageable  shape 
and  limits. 

4.  To  change  the  habit  of  the  plant  from  more 
or  less  wood -bearing  or  fruit -bearing  (or  flower- 
bearing)  . 

5.  To  remove  superfluous  or  injured  parts. 

6.  To  facilitate  spraying  and  harvesting. 

7.  To  facilitate  tillage  and  to  improve  the  con- 
venience of  the  plantation. 

8.  To  train  the  plant  to  some  desired  form. 

1.  Heavy  pruning  of  the  top  of  a  plant  tends  to 
increase  the  production  of  wood  for  strong 
vegetative  growth ). 

A  plant  growing  under  normal  conditions  has  a 
perfect  balance  of  top  and  root.  The  top  and 
root  mutually  supply,  support  and  nourish  each 
other.  The  one  must  respond  to  the  other.  The 
more  root,  the  greater  the  amount  of  crude  ma- 
terials taken  in;  and  the  greater  the  amount  of 
these  materials,  the  greater  must  be  the  elaborat- 
ing leaf  surface,  and  the  greater,  therefore,  the 
growth  of  all  parts  of  the  plant.  If  a  large  part 
of  the  top  is  removed  and  the  root  is  untouched, 
the  balance  is  broken.  An  equal  amount  of  root 
supplies  a  smaller  amount  of  top.  There  is  more 
food  for  all  the  remaining  branches.  The  re- 
sult is  greater  growth  of  these  parts  than  they 
normally  would  have  made  ;  or  new  parts — suckers 
— may  arise.  Let  the  reader  recall  the  crab -apple 


HEAVY  PRUNING  MAKES  WOOD. 


137 


trees  described  on  pages  15,  16,  or  let  him  con- 
sider the  behavior  of  the  dwarf  pear  tree  in  Fig. 
111.  All  these  considerations  explain  the  gar- 
dener's rule  that  in  roses 
and  other  ornamental 
plants,  the  weak  kinds 
should  be  heavily  pruned 
and  the  strong  kinds 
lightly  pruned.* 

If  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
sort to  severe  pruning  for 
the  purpose  of  correcting 
the  shape  or  training 
of  a  plant,  and  it  is  de- 
sired at  the  same  time  to 
avoid  excessive  growth, 
the  operator  should  re- 
move the  superfluous 
parts  gradually.  This 
caution  is  important, 
even  in  the  training  of 
herbaceous  plants.  A 
grower  of  winter  toma-  11L  Heavy  P™ning  produces 

wood    (in    this    case,  a  pro- 

toes  writes  me  as  follows      fusion  of  watersprouts). 
on    this    point:     "I    find 

that  when  planted  thickly  in  the  beds  the  foliage 
needs  heavy  trimming  to  keep  it  within  bounds; 
and  would  say  further  of  this  trimming  that  it 


"See,  for  example,  Ernest  Walker,  in  "Garden-Making,"  page  298. 


138  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

must  be  done  frequently,  and  only  a  moderate  pro- 
portion of  the  leafage  removed  at  one  time,  for 
if  heavy  trimming  is  indulged,  it  will  cause  a 
fresh,  strong  growth  which  splits  open  the  partly 
developed  fruits,  exposing  the  interior  or  seed 
cells  of  the  fruit  and  rendering  it  unfit  for 
sale.  Our  practice  is  to  remove  the  outer  end 
of  the  leaf  and  afterwards  take  off  a  joint 
at  a  time  as  the  leaves  on  the  inner  part  increase 
in  size  under  the  trimming,  as  the  first  two  leaf- 
lets on  the  leaf  stalk  eventually  attain  almost  as 
large  size  as  the  entire  leaf  under  ordinary  treat- 
ment. The  gardener  tells  me  that  the  splitting  of 
the  fruits  would  also  result  from  stopping  the 
ends  of  the  shoots  while  the  plants  are  still  in 
growth.  Of  course,  the  fresh  shoots  coming  up 
from  the  roots  would  tend  to  overcome  this  vigor- 
ous growth  of  the  plants  and  consequent  splitting." 

2.  Heavy   pruning   of  the   root    tends    to    lessen 
the  production  of  wood. 

The  food  supply  is  cut  off.  Root -pruning  is  to 
be  compared  to  poor  feeding.  The  reader  knows 
that  he  prunes  the  tops  of  transplanted  plants 
because  the  roots  have  been  cut,  and  he  must 
thereby  reduce  the  area  to  be  supported.  Root- 
pruning  is  practicable  chiefly  in  the  growing  of 
specimen  plants,  or  in  small  amateur  plantations, 
particularly  when  trees  are  trained  on  walls,  cor- 
dons, and  the  like.  (Consult  Chapter  V.) 


REJUVENATING    THE    PLANT  139 

3.  Heavy  pruning  of  the  top  tends  to  rejuve- 
nate weak  or  declining  plants. 

This  is  because  the  remaining  parts  receive  more 
food.  The  proposition  is  really  a  corollary  of 
Section  1,  but  it  has  such  distinct  and  important 
applications  that  it  is  well  to  give  it  an  indepen- 
dent statement.  When  plants  begin  to  fail  from 
general  debility  (not  from  the  attacks  of  insects  or 
fungi),  manure  or  prune  them  heavily,  or  do  both. 
It  is  generally  best  to  remove  the  weakest  parts, 
particularly  if  the  decline  has  progressed  far ;  but 
if  it  is  desired  to  save  the  particular  branches 
which  are  involved,  a  heavy  pruning  of  the  healthy 
parts  may  be  expected  to  throw  new  activity  into 
the  weak  ones  In  many  cases,  however,  it  is  im- 
possible to  rejuvenate  weak  branches  ;  but  suck- 
ers or  watersprouts  may  be  developed,  and  these 
may  form  a  new  head.  Old  and  decrepit  peach 
trees  are  often  headed -back  severely  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  securing  this  new  wood.  The 
tops  of  birches,  maples  and  other  ornamental  trees 
sometimes  show  signs  of  failing.  If  there  are  no 
borers  or  other  specific  troubles,  the  tree  should 
be  heavily  pruned,  and  if  the  trunk  and  roots  are 
sound,  renewed  activity  may  be  expected. 

Under  Section  1  (page  136)  we  found  that  weak 
kinds  or  varieties  of  plants  should  be  pruned 
severely  and  strong  kinds  moderately.  These  re- 
marks were  meant  to  apply  to  plants  of  different 
habits,  not  to  weakness  due  to  disease  or  debility; 


140  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

yet  the  rule  holds  good  in  either  case, — heavy 
pruning  for  wood,  light  pruning  to  maintain  the 
habitual  condition.  One  must  be  careful,  how- 
ever, not  to  apply  these  contrasts  to  differing 
branches  on  the  same  plant,  for  it  is  a  fact  that 
one  branch  may  appropriate  the  food  of  another 
(see  Section  6) ;  if,  therefore,  it  is  desired  to  even 
up  the  branches  on  any  plant,  prune  the  strong 
shoots  severely  and  the  others  only  moderately,  and 
thereby  throw  the  energy  into  the  weaker  shoots. 
This  type  of  pruning  is  often  done  in  the  summer. 
"Meehan's  Monthly"  gives  the  following  advice 
on  this  point:  "This  summer  pruning  is  espe- 
cially effective  with  coniferous  trees.  In  the  case 
of  pines,  we  know  that  in  the  springtime  three  or 
four  branches  push  out  at  the  end  of  last  year's 
sprouts,  looking  like  gas  burners.  The  central 
one  is  very  vigorous  and  those  on  the  sides  are 
weaker.  If  we  pinch  out  the  point  of  the  stronger 
ones  the  sap  at  once  flows  into  the  weaker  ones, 
and  they  become  strong,  and  new  buds  form  at 
the  place  where  the  strong  one  was  pinched  off. 
Next  year  this  bud  continues  the  growth  of  the 
branch  almost  as  straight  as  if  it  had  never  been 
pinched -back.  We  can  pinch  off  the  terminal  bud 
of  the  main  stem,  a  new  bud  forming  a  leader 
without  any  bend.  One  who  understands  this 
business  of  summer  pruning  of  evergreens  can  so 
manage  that  trees  form  an  absolutely  perfect  speci- 
men from  the  ground  to  the  top,  no  one  branch 


WINTER -INJURED     PLANTS  141 

being  any  stronger  than  another.  The  chief  thing 
to  remember  is  that  in  summer  pruning  the  weak 
branches  of  the  shoot  should  not  be  touched ;  it  is 
only  the  stronger  ones  that  require  checking." 

These  remarks  have  a  most  important  bearing 
on  the  treatment  to  be  given  to  severely  winter  - 
injured  trees.  My  own  thought  about  the  mat- 
ter is  expressed  in  the  following  quotation  from 
" Principles  of  Fruit- Gro wing" :  "The  proper  treat- 
ment for  frozen-back  trees  must  be  determined 
for  each  particular  case;  but  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  injured  portion  is  no  longer  of 
use  to  the  plant,  whereas  it  may  be  a  positive 
detriment  by  accelerating  the  evaporation  of  mois- 
ture. The  best  treatment  for  plants  seriously 
injured  upon  the  extremities  is  to  cut  them  back 
very  heavily.  This  severe  heading -in— sometimes 
to  the  extent  of  three  or  four  feet — removes  the 
driest  and  weakest  portions,  and  concentrates  the 
energy  of  the  tree  into  a  comparatively  small  area 
of  top.  Heavy  pruning  always  tends  toward  the 
production  of  wood,  and  this  wood  production 
is  probably  never  more  needed  than  in  winter- 
injured  trees,  for  it  tends  to  renew  the  vitality  of 
the  tree.  The  philosophy  of  this  becomes  appar- 
ent upon  a  moment's  reflection.  The  browned 
and  injured  wood  can  never  regain  its  former 
usefulness.  New  tissue  must  be  developed  as 
quickly  as  possible,  in  order  to  carry  forward  and 
to  maintain  the  vegetative  energies.  This  new 


142 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     PRUNING 


tissue  is  laid  on  over  the  old,  and  the  old,  there- 
by, quickly  becomes   sealed  in,  so 
to  speak,  and   removed   from    the 
agencies  of  decay.      Every  obser- 
vant  fruit-grower   knows    that    if 
a   tree    which    is    severely   winter- 
injured  in  limb  and  trunk  were  to 
bear  even  a  partial  crop  of   fruit 
in  the  coming  season,  it  would  very 
likely   die    outright.     If,  however, 
all   its    energies   were    directed    to 
the    development    of    new    tissue, 
the   injury   might    soon    be    over- 
grown.      The    injured  wood,    like 
the  heartwood  of  the  tree,  is  soon 
removed  from  active  participation 
in   the    vital  processes.     It   there- 
fore  follows    that    the    danger  re- 
sulting   from     the     browning     or 
blackening  of  the  wood  by  winter- 
injury     depends     very 
much    upon    the    sub- 
sequent   treatment    of 
the    plant.       Fig.   112 
shows  the    body   of    a 
young    plum    tree    (in 
longitudinal  and  cross- 
wise    sections)    which 

112.     Showing  the  new  tissue  „  ,  ,      , 

formed    around    winter-injured       WaS     frOZ6n     black      m 

wood.  the    severe    winter    of 


WINTER -INJURED     PLANTS  143 

1895-6.  It  was  heavily  pruned  in  the  spring 
of  1896,  and  in  the  fall  had  made  a  ring  of  bright 
new  wood,  which  was  amply  sufficient  to  maintain 
the  tree  in  perfect  health  for  a  long  life.  This 
appearance  is  common  in  nursery  stock  the  year 
following  a  very  hard  winter,  but  such  trees  may 
not  be  permanently  injured. 

"There  are  instances  in  which  this  heavy  head- 
ing-back seems  to  do  more  harm  than  good. 
These  are  cases  in  which  the  entire  tree  is  almost 
uniformly  injured,  and  the  plant  seems  to  need 
the  stimulus  of  all  its  buds  to  bring  out  the 
feeble  life  which  is  still  left  to  it;  but  these  cases 
are  comparatively  rare.  It  is  probable  that  the 
greater  number  of  reported  instances  of  death 
due  to  heavy  pruning  of  winter -injured  trees  are 
of  such  trees  as  would  have  died  under  any  treat- 
ment. Winter -killed -plants  often  retain  suffi- 
cient vitality  to  enable  them  to  leaf  out  or  to 
bloom,  and  sometimes  even  to  begin  growth,  but 
when  the  stored  vitality  of  the  tissues  is  ex- 
hausted the  plant  perishes.  This  explains  the  phe- 
nomenon which,  after  a  bad  winter,  nearly  always 
puzzles  the  unobservant  fruit-grower,  of  trees 
starting  into  feeble  growth,  and  then  suddenly 
dying  when  warm  and  dry  weather  approaches." 

There  are  many  unsolved  problems  associated 
with  the  pruning  of  winter-injured  trees  in  very 
severe  climates.  There  are  evidently  two  factors 
concerned  in  the  question, — the  general  effect  of 


144  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

heavy  pruning  on  the  tree,  and  the  injury  result- 
ing from  the  wounds.  In  the  dry  and  cold  cli- 
mates of  the  North,  Northwest  and  the  Plains, 
there  is  excessive  evaporation  from  winter-made 
wounds,  and  this  injury  may  be  so  great  as  to 
make  severe  winter  pruning  inadvisable  in  many 
localities.  (See  Section  17.)  It  is  therefore  dif- 
ficult to  judge  of  the  merits  of  controversies  con- 
cerning the  advisability  of  the  heavy  pruning  of 
winter -injured  trees,  particularly  in  severe  cli- 
mates, because  two  or  more  unanalyzed  problems 
may  be  involved. 

Since  opinions  differ  as  to  the  advisability  of 
severely  heading -back  trees  which  are  much  in- 
jured by  cold,  I  here  insert  extracts  from  letters 
of  various  fruit-growers  in  the  Northwest,  to 
whom  I  was  referred  by  E.  S.  Goff,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin.  Professor  Goff  himself 
writes  as  follows: 

"  I  have  discussed  the  question  as  to  the  advisability  of 
pruning  winter- injured  trees  with  Wisconsin  friends.  Some 
of  them  are  very  positive  that  pruning  such  trees  in  spring 
has  caused  their  death  in  several  cases ;  also  that  similar 
trees  not  pruned  until  they  had  recovered  vigor,  have  out- 
grown the  effects  of  the  winter  and  made  good  trees.  The 
hypothesis  that  I  have  used  to  explain  the  opinions  that 
such  trees  should  not  be  pruned  in  spring  is  this:  The 
buds,  being  enfeebled  by  cold,  are  not  able  to  use  a  large 
quantity  of  water  from  the  roots,  and  hence  thinning  out 
the  buds,  which  naturally  tends  to  increase  the  pressure  of 
sap  in  the  remaining  ones,  proves  injurious.  That  this  is 
true,  I  am  by  no  means  sure,  but  the  fact  that  winter- 


PRUNING    IN    THE    NORTHWEST  145 

injured  trees  often  throw  up  many  sprouts  from  the  base 
of  the  trunk,  seems  to  me  evidence  in  the  affirmative." 

Professor  Budd,  Iowa:  "In  cutting  back  injured  parts 
of  raspberry,  blackberry,  shrubs,  or  the  orchard  fruits  in- 
jured by  winter,  I  prefer  to  wait  for  the  starting  of  the  buds, 
and  then  cut  to  the  point  where  the  buds  start  in  a  healthful 
way.  But  in  severe  injury,  such  as  that  of  the  Florida 
orange  trees,  I  gave  the  advice  to  cut  before  there  was 
any  show  of  buds." 

Professor  Green,  Minnesota:  "I  prefer  to  prune  after  the 
trees  have  leafed  out  quite  a  little,  rather  than  early  in  the 
spring.  Early  spring  pruning,  and  pruning  just  as  the  sap 
starts  strongly,  is  liable  to  cause  bad  wounds,  that  heal 
slowly,  and  the  wood  is  apt  to  die  back  in  apple  trees  in  this 
section  when  so  pruned.  But  this  latter  trouble  we  some- 
times avoid  by  covering  all  the  wounds  with  grafting- wax. 
Then,  in  the  case  of  winter- injured  wood,  we  can  tell  more 
certainly  as  to  the  extent  of  the  injury,  if  the  pruning  is 
not  done  until  the  growth  has  started." 

O.  M.  Lord,  Minnesota  City,  Minn.:  "My  experience 
with  apple  trees,  though  covering  a  period  of  more  than 
forty  years  at  this  place,  has  been  limited  to  few  varieties 
and  to  my  own  grounds.  I  have  found  that  it  is  almost  sure 
death  to  cut  or  trim  apple  trees  at  any  time  except  when 
the  trees  have  begun  to  leaf  out.  I  do  not  know  of  any 
trees  in  the  fruit  line  that  will  bear  such  severe  cutting  as 
the  native  plums,  but  I  prefer  to  trim  them  when  the  foliage 
is  nearly  full." 

J.  S.  Harris,  La  Crescent,  Minn.:  "My  opinion,  based 
upon  a  long  experience  in  this  Northwest,  is  that  if  the 
injury  is  so  great  that  any  considerable  portion  of  the  top 
will  need  to  be  removed,  the  pruning  had  best  be  done  as 
soon  as  the  winter  is  broken,  and  long  enough  before  spring 
opens  that  there  shall  be  no  starting  of  sap.  The  pruning 
shall  extend  down  to  uninjured  wood  and  the  wounds  prop- 
erly covered.  Where  the  injury  is  not  so  great  as  to  re- 


146  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

quire  the  removal  of  much  wood,  I  prefer  the  last  half"  of 
June  for  such  pruning.  Our  experience  here  is,  the  worst 
time  of  all  for  pruning  is  when  the  trees  or  buds  are  about 
ready  to  swell  and  start,  until  they  are  nearly  fully  open." 

A.  J.  Philips,  Sec.  Wisconsin  Horticultural  Society,  West 
Salem,  Wis. :     "My  plan  with  a  tree  that  has  been  injured 
would  be  to  prune  it  after  the  severe  weather  of  winter  is 
over,  and  before  the  tree  exerts  any  of  its  weakened  forces, 
to  start  growth  on    all    the  top,  thereby  concentrating    its 
strength  on  a  smaller  surface.     But  in  this  trying  climate  I 
spend  but  little  time  trying  to  bring  back  trees   that  are 
badly  injured.      I  much  prefer  to  top  work  those  varieties 
that  are  subject  to  injury  on  a  known  vigorous  and  hardy 
stock.     My  rule  now  is  to  top -work  one  hundred  each  year 
on  three  to  five-year-old  stocks,  and  my  orchard  is  grad- 
ually increasing  in  value  and  productiveness." 

B.  Wade    Hewett,    Pardeeville,    Wis.:     "My    experience 
has  taught  me  that  the  earlier  trees  can  be  pruned  in  the 
spring  after  severe  freezing  is  past,  the  better.     To  be  sure, 
sometimes  trees  are  so  badly  tipped-back  that  it  becomes 
necessary  to  wait  for  the  selection   of   a  leader  until  the 
buds  are  well  swollen,  but  all  possible  trimming  should  be 
done  before   this.     For  best   results,    I  would   say,  do    all 
fruit-tree  trimming  before  leaves  break." 

Charles  Hirschinger,  Baraboo,  Wis.:  "Severely  injured 
trees  should  not  be  pruned  till  the  year  following,  not  in 
the  year  of  injury.  If  pruned,  wait  till  after  the  leaves 
are  half  grown,  or,  better,  till  June  first.  Severely  injured 
trees  are  sometimes  killed  by  early  pruning,  or  by  pruning 
the  same  year  that  they  were  injured;  but  if  left  till  the 
next  year,  they  frequently  recover,  and  wounds  heal  over 
nicely,  which  is  often  not  the  case  if  pruned  same  year 
they  are  injured." 

George  J.  Kellogg,  Janesville,  Wis.:  "Prune  injured 
shade  (except  maples)  trees  in  March  after  zero  weather  is 
past.  Prune  fruit  trees  after  the  weather  will  not  get 


PRUNING    FROZEN     ORANGE    TREES  147 

colder  than  10°  above  zero.  Farther  south,  where  zero 
weather  is  not  likely  to  prevail,  prune  shade  and  fruit  trees 
any  time  in  winter,  at  least  thirty  days  before  the  buds  are 
likely  to  open." 

The  great  Florida  freezes  of  1894-5  brought 
much  discussion  as  to  the  proper  methods  of  treat- 
ing frozen  orange  trees.  Many  persons  cut  the 
trees  back  to  fresh  wood,  others  practiced  root- 
pruning  at  the  same  time  to  equalize  root  and  top, 
and  others  did  nothing.  The  last-named  persons 
practically  lost  badly  frozen  trees.  The  writer 
studied  the  effects  of  the  various  treatments  in  the 
winter  of  1896-7,  and  it  seemed  clear  that  vigor- 
ous cutting-back  is  to  be  recommended  in  such 
cases.  Some  of  the  best  results  were  seen  on  the 
estate  of  H.  S.  Williams,  at  Rockledge,  Fla.;  and 
Mr.  Williams'  own  advice*  is  here  reprinted: 

"As  a  rule,  all  my  trees  were  budded  low,  and  on  sour 
stocks.  In  April  they  began  to  show  signs  of  life,  vary- 
ing from  two  to  fifteen  feet  from  the  ground.  All  the 
branches,  with  but  few  exceptions,  were  killed  back  to 
the  main  trunk.  Some  trees  were  killed  to  the  ground 
on  south  side,  while  on  the  north  they  threw  out  vigorous 
sprouts  up  some  two  or  three  feet.  *  *  *  Some  of  the 
sprouts,  high  up  on  the  trunk,  where  the  wood  did  not  have 
vigor  enough  to  sustain  life — a  mere  shell  under  the  bark — 
have  died  the  past  summer,  but  not  as  many  as  I  was  led  to 
expect.  The  crop  of  the  season  of  1894-95  was  ten  oranges. 
The  present  crop,  1895-96,  may  be  30  boxes.  Owing  to  the 
excess  of  roots  over  the  top,  hence  the  excess  of  sap  and 
food  taken  up  by  the  roots,  the  fruit  is  somewhat  coarse, 

*As  given  in  Indian  River  Advocate,  Dec.  4,  1896. 


148  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

while  some  trees  have  the  red -rust,  causing  the  fruit  to  split 
and  drop.  This  disease,  however,  will  rapidly  disappear  as 
the  roots  and  tops  become  more  evenly  balanced.  As  some 
trees  were  flowing  more  sap  than  others  when  the  last 
freeze  struck  them,  so  some  were  hurt  much  worse  than 
others,  even  though  standing  side  by  side  in  the  grove. 
The  present  condition  of  the  trees,  however,  is,  in  the 
main,  very  satisfactory,  and  the  fruit-bearing  wood  should 
give  us  a  fair  crop  another  season— say  20  or  more  boxes 
where  we  now  count  one.  The  rapid  growth  of  this  new 
fruit -producing  wood  will  tax  our  ingenuity  to  the  utmost 
to  keep  it  from  being  crushed  by  its  own  weight,  as  these 
sprouts  have,  in  many  instances,  but  a  thin  shell  of  live 
wood  to  give  them  strength  as  against  the  wood  fiber  from 
the  wood  of  the  tree,  as  is  the  case  with  the  tree  in  its 
normal  condition.  These  sprouts,  growing  at  an  angle  of 
some  forty-five  degrees,  when  weighed  down  with  fruit  will 
have  to  be  artificially  supported  with  the  greatest  care.  *  * 

"Profiting  by  the  experience  of  the  past,  I  would  change 
but  little  in  the  work  done  to  bring  out  my  orange  grove  to 
the  best  advantage,  and  in  the  least  possible  time.  If  all 
the  trunks  of  the  trees  had  been  well  wrapped  the  morning 
after  the  second  freeze,  or  better  yet,  the  day  before,  if  the 
Signal  Service  would  give  us  the  notice  in  time,  it  would, 
no  doubt,  prove  of  invaluable  benefit. 

"  Then  I  should  advise  the  following  treatment :  Cut  off 
the  lower  branches  and  cut  top  immediately  above.  The 
trees  treated  in  this  way,  as  before  noted,  are  alive  all 
around  the  trunk,  and  the  branches  and  sprouts  thrown  out 
seem  to  be  more  firmly  united  with  the  trunk  than  any 
others.  Cut  all  trees  less  than  six  years  set  close  to  the 
ground,  and  draw  the  dirt  away  from  the  collar,  so  as  to  ex- 
pose the  surface  roots  slightly  to  the  sun.  As  soon  as  prac- 
ticable, plow  the  grove,  breaking  as  many  roots  as  may 
come  in  contact  with  plow,  and  have  a  man  follow  with 
keen  grub-hoe,  and  cut  off  all  such  roots  smoothly. 


FROZEN    GRAPE    VINES  149 

"If  one  has  a  small  grove,  I  would  advise  digging  a 
trench  fully  ten  inches  deep,  grading  the  distance  from 
trunk  according  to  size  of  tree,  and  cutting  off  all  roots. 
Some  trees  treated  in  this  way,  a  year  after  the  freeze, 
show  a  marked  improvement  in  the  way  of  growth  the  sec- 
ond summer  just  passed.  As  soon  as  the  sprouts  from  the 
ground  get  large  enough,  insert  your  buds  and  get  them 
started  as  soon  as  possible.  If  you  wait  until  the  next 
spring  the  buds  will  make  too  rank  a  growth.  *•  *  * 

"Regarding  the  number  of  buds  that  is  best  to  let  grow, 
there  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion,  and  it  will  take  years 
to  decide  positively  what  is  really  best.  In  all  my  younger 
trees,  where  the  stump  will  probably  heal  over,  I  have 
adopted  the  rule  to  let  only  one  grow,  as  we  much  prefer  to 
have  a  single  trunk  only.  In  the  case  of  old  trees  killed 
to  the  ground,  I  cannot  but  think  that  it  will  be  a  temporary 
make -shift  at  the  best,  to  get  a  few  oranges  while  the 
newly -set  tree  is  growing,  so  that  it  really  makes  small 
difference  whether  two  or  half-a-dozen  are  grown.  Never 
have  we  had  such  an  opportunity  to  change  our  varieties." 

How  to  treat  grape  vines  which  are  frozen 
after  growth  has  begun  is  also  a  perennial  ques- 
tion. Much  will  depend  on  the  severity  of  the 
freeze,  and  on  the  amount  of  growth  which  had 
taken  place.  The  following  extract*  is  believed 
to  explain  the  best  method  of  procedure  :  "In 
proceeding  to  treat  frozen  vines,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  injured  parts  are  of  no 
further  use  to  the  plants,  and  they  are  very  apt 
to  weaken  the  plant  by  causing  it  to  lose  much 
of  its  moisture.  The  rational  procedure,  there- 


:  Principles  of  Fruit-Growing,"  p.  329. 


150  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

fore,  is  to  strip  off  all  the  frozen  shoots  soon 
after  the  disaster,  so  as  to  allow  the  energies  of 
the  plant  to  divert  themselves  to  the  production 
of  new  shoots.  When  the  injured  parts  are  soft 
and  small,  it  is  customary  to  remove  them  by 
pulling  them  off,  rather  than  by  cutting  them 
off.  In  well  pruned  vineyards  the  cost  of  strip- 
ping ought  not  to  exceed  one  dollar  an  acre." 

4.  A  pruned  plant   tends  to  resume  its  natural 
habit. 

Every  plant  has  individuality.  One  plant  is  un- 
like every  other  plant.  It  may  be  round-headed, 
conical-headed,  very  straight  or  strict,  prostrate, 
and  the  like.  In  whatever  way  or  however  much 
the  plant  may  be  pruned,  it  immediately  makes 
an  effort  to  regain  its  former  or  habitual  shape 
and  behavior ;  and  the  more  vigorous  the  plant, 
the  more  rapidly  and  completely  does  it  resume 
its  former  state.  Vigorous  firs  and  spruces  make 
a  new  leader  without  difficulty;  the  Northern 
Spy  tends  to  grow  erect,  however  much  it  is 
pruned,  whereas  the  Longfield  tends  as  persis- 
tently to  droop.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  most  rational  pruning — when  fruit  and  the 
welfare  of  the  plant  are  chief  concerns — is  that 
which  allows  the  plant  to  take  its  natural  form, 
merely  correcting  its  minor  faults  here  and  there. 
In  a  pear  orchard,  for  example,  there  should  be 
as  many  types  or  methods  of  pruning  as  there 


THE     LEADER    RENEWS     ITSELF  151 

are  varieties  of  pears.  Arbitrary  ideals  are  use- 
ful only  when  it  is  desired  to  sacrifice  other 
considerations  to  mere  form  and  looks.  (See 
Chapter  VI.)  They  are  chiefly  useful  in  the 
growing  of  plants  for  certain  ornamental  effects 
and  when  it  is  necessary, — because  of  lack  of 
space,  or  uncongenial  climate,  or  growing  under 
glass — to  train  to  some  definite  form.  It  is  well 
to  remember  that  mere  handsomeness  or  comeli- 
ness of  the  plant  is  unimportant  in  fruit-growing. 
On  this  point,  A.  J.  Downing  writes  as  follows: 
"Every  fruit  tree,  grown  in  the  open  orchard  or 
garden  as  a  common  standard,  should  be  allowed 
to  take  its  natural  form,  the  whole  efforts  of  the 
pruner  going  no  further  than  to  take  out  all 
weak  and  crowded  branches." 

One  cannot  visit  a  forest  without  seeing  that 
pruned  and  injured  trees  tend  to  regain  their  for- 
mal stature.  Observe  how  the  leader  was  re- 
newed in  Fig.  113, — a  tree  which  was  once  broken 
over.  The  new  leader,  which  sprung  from  the 
declined  trunk,  now  continues  the  bole  of  the 
tree.  In  Fig.  114  several  leaders  have  started  from 
the  prostrate  trunks,  each  one  simulating  the 
upward  growth  of  the  original  tree.  These  re- 
marks will  also  apply  to  the  roots.  It  is  the  com- 
monest notion  that  a  tap-root  should  not  be  cut, 
else  the  plant  will  be  shallow -rooted;  but  a  new 
tap — or,  what  may  be  better,  two  or  three  tap- 
roots— arises  from  the  old  (from  a,  Fig.  115).  The 


113.    Renewal  of  the  leader  in  a  broken  tree. 


HABIT    OF    YOUNG    PLANTS 


153 


tap-root  is  one  of  the  ancestral  bogies  of  horticul- 
turists ;  and,  like  the  sap,  being  out  of  sight, 
almost  any  assertion  may  be  made  of  it  without 
danger  of  disproof.  The  direction  of  the  roots 
is  much  influenced  by  the  particular  piece  of  earth 
in  which  they  grow,  but  beyond  this,  roots  be- 


114.     Renewal  of  leaders  on  trunks  which  were  crushed 
to  the  horizontal. 

have   essentially   as    branches    do,   in   respect    to 
pruning. 

5.   The  habit   of  the  plant  varies  from  youth  to 
age. 

Young  plants  are  vigorous  and  rapid -growing. 
They  tend  to  make  strong,  upright  growths. 
Eventually  they  reach  a  limit  of  stature,  and  the 
nearer  they  approach  that  epoch  the  less  rapid  is 
the  growth.  Fruit -bearing  tends  to  reduce  growth 
and  to  broaden  the  top.  Young  pear  trees,  par- 


154  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    PRUNING 

ticularly  of  the  Kieffer  type,  make  very  long  and 
erect  growths,  but  when  bearing -time  arrives  the 
growth  is  less  marked  and  the  limbs  spread.  The 
treatment  of  a  young  tree,  therefore,  may  be  very 
different  from  that  demanded  by  the  same  tree 
when  it  arrives  at  maturity. 

6.  One  part  of  a  plant  may 
live  at  the  expense  of 
another  part. 

We   know   that    the   plant 
cannot  make  use  of   the  ma- 
-TT  terials  taken  in  by  the  roots 
*  and    leaves   until   these    ma- 
•      terials   have  been  elaborated 
in  the  green  parts.    The  elab- 
orated material  is  distributed 
to  every  living  and  growing 
point.      Some  of   this  mate- 
rial  is  stored,  particularly  in 
the  fall,  and  from  this  stored 
us.    Renewal  of  the     material  the  early  bloom  and 

leader  on  the  root.          growtll     Qf     spring    is     partly 

and  sometimes  largely  made.  Strong  spring 
shoots  are  supplied  from  other  parts  of  the  plant 
as  well  as  from  newly  appropriated  materials. 
On  this  point  Sorauer  writes*  that  "it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  at  the  commencement  every 


*"  Physiology  of   Plants    for    the    Use    of  Gardeners,"  translated    by 
Weiss,  146. 


WATERSPROUTS  155 

young  shoot  draws  like  a  parasite  upon  the  food 
matter  of  the  older  branch;  this  applies  as  much 
to  the  consumption  of  water  as  to  the  stored -up 
material." 

More  than  this,  one  shoot  may  rob  another,  and 
thereby  grow  the  faster.  Shoots  may  be  both 
parasites  and  robbers.  Very  vigorous  shoots 
rarely  have  leaf  surface  enough  to  supply  their 
own  needs.  Being  profusely  supplied  with  water, 
they  appropriate  building  materials  which  have 
been  elaborated  by  other  branches.  Such  shoots 
are  watersprouts  or  suckers.  Robbers  should  be 
arrested. 

7.  Watersprouts  are  results  of  a  disturbed  equi- 
librium of  the  plant;  and  the  formation 
of  watersprouts  is  influenced  more  by  the 
vigor  of  the  plant  and  the  amount  of  prun- 
ing than  by  the  season  of  the  year  in 
which  the  pruning  is  done. 

This  is  really  a  corollary  to  Section  1.  We 
know  that  heavy  pruning  produces  wood,  and 
this  extra  production  may  arise  either  as  an 
elongation  of  existing  shoots  or  in  the  origina- 
tion of  wholly  new  shoots.  When  these  new 
shoots  are  particularly  lusty,  they  are  water- 
sprouts.  Fig.  Ill  explains  the  outcome  of  heavy 
pruning. 

If  the  reader  agrees  to  the  above  propositions, 
then  he  must  admit  that  the  season  of  pruning 


156  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

has  a  very  secondary  influence  on  the  production 
of  watersprouts,  however  confidently  he  may  have 
asserted  to  the  contrary;  for  if  the  plant  is  not 
vigorous,  and  if  the  root  force  is  not  in  excess  of 
the  top,  watersprouts  cannot  arise.  To  be  sure, 
watersprouts  may  follow  the  bending  or  twisting 
of  the  top,  but  even  in  this  case  the  equilibrium 
of  root  and  top  is  disturbed,  as  we  shall  find  in 
Sections  10  and  13. 

It  is  probable  that  the  season  of  pruning  exerts 
some  influence  on  the  appearing  of  watersprouts. 
After  midsummer,  watersprouts  cannot  arise,  as  a 
rule,  for  growth  has  then  ceased;  and  if  the  plant 
is  pruned  at  that  epoch  it  may  have  opportunity 
to  re -adjust  its  energies  before  another  year,  and 
thereby  exert  its  redundant  forces  rather  more  in 
the  prolongation  of  existing  growths  than  in  the 
establishing  of  new  ones.  I  must  admit  that  this 
philosophy  is  difficult  of  proof  (see  Section  16), 
but  it  is  as  good  an  hypothesis  as  I  can  for- 
mulate to  sustain  what  is  a  sound  maxim  of 
practice,  viz.,  that  the  operator  should  not  allow 
the  fear  of  watersprouts  to  dictate  the  season  of 
pruning.  In  fact,  watersprouts  are  a  result  of 
pruning  as  weeds  are  of  plowing,  and  the  like- 
lihood of  the  appearing  of  either  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  preceding  neglect.  Subsequent  prun- 
ing is  the  remedy  for  watersprouts,  as  tillage  is 
for  weeds. 


HEADING -IN  157 

8.  The  tendency  of  plants  is  to  grow  from  the 

uppermost  buds;  and  this  tendency  is  most 
pronounced  in  young  plants. 

We  have  had  ample  proof  of  this  in  Chapters 
I.  and  II.  We  know  that  it  must  be  so,  too,  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  natural  outcome  of  struggle 
for  light  and  air,  and  from  the  fact  that  were  it 
not  so,  strict -stemmed  plants  would  grow  broad 
rather  than  high.  If  these  considerations  do  not 
satisfy  the  reader,  let  him  go  out  and  look. 

We  may  prune  in  such  way  as  to  maintain  or 
augment  this  natural  tendency,  or  to  thwart  it. 
The  means  of  checking  it  are  of  two  types, — 
hindering  the  upward  flow  of  sap  (as  by  girdling, 
notching,  bending,  twisting,  and  the  like,  discussed 
in  Sections  10,  13,  and  in  Chapter  V.),  and  by 
heading -in.  To  consideration  of  the  latter  cate- 
gory we  shall  now  proceed. 

9.  The    heading -in    of    young   growths    tends    to 

develop  the  lateral  and  the  dormant  buds. 

That  is,  headed- in  plants  thicken  and  broaden 
their  tops.  The  objects  of  heading-in  are  two, — 
to  correct  an  objectionable  habit,  and  to  induce 
fruit -bearing.  The  latter  consideration  is  dis- 
cussed specifically  in  Section  15. 

Inasmuch  as*  the  shape  which  a  plant  shall 
assume  is  largely  a  question  of  personal  prefer- 
ence, it  is  impossible  always  to  give  good  advice 
respecting  the  heading-in  of  trees  and  shrubs. 


158  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

The  rational  heading- in  of  trees  for  the  purpose 
of  correcting  the  habit  devolves  upon  four  con- 
ditions or  factors, — the  rapidity  or  amount  of 
growth,  the  distance  apart  of  the  trees,  whether 
the  trees  are  dwarfs  or  standards,  and  the  personal 
choice  of  the  owner  of  the  trees. 

In  fruit  trees,  annual  growths  of  three  feet  or 
more  may  be  headed-in,  particularly  if  the  trees 
are  close  together  and  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the 
size  of  head.  This  operation  is  necessary  only  with 
young  and  unfruitful  trees,  as  a  rule,  for  we  have 
found  (Section  5)  that  mature  and  fruit -bearing 
trees  rarely  grow  wantonly.  If  mature  trees  are 
making  too  much  growth,  the  fundamental 
remedy  is  to  check  the  growth  rather  than  to 
cut  it  off,  for  heavy  heading-in  tends  to  augment 
the  difficulty  (Section  1).  The  growth  may  be 
checked  by  modifying  the  tillage  or  fertilizing  of 
the  plantation,  unless  the  excessive  growth  is  due 
to  excessive  pruning. 

In  dwarf  trees,  it  is  essential  that  heading-in 
be  practiced,  in  order  that  the  top  shall  not 
overbalance  the  root.  This  question  is  discussed 
in  its  specific  aspects  in  Chapter  V. 

In  general,  the  matter  of  heading-in  resolves 
itself  into  a  question  of  personal  ideals.  If  the 
owner  wants  a  thick -topped  and  round-headed 
tree,  heading-in  is  necessary.  If  he  wants  a 
free  -  growing,  open -centered  tree,  heading-in 
should  be  avoided,  except,  perhaps,  while  the 


HEADING -IN 


159 


tree  is  very  young.  Although  the  writer's  per- 
sonal opinions  upon  this  subject  may  be  of  no 
value  to  the  public,  they 
may  nevertheless  be  ex- 
pounded by  a  concrete  ex- 
ample. 

A  Kieffer  pear  tree  is 
shown  in  diagram  in  Fig. 
116.  It  is  two  years  set. 
When  planted,  it  was  a  mere 
whip.  The  first  season  it 
sent  out  four  very  strong 
lateral  branches,  as  shown 
in  the  picture.  At  the  end 
of  that  season  the  growths 
were  cut  back  half  their 
length.  The  second  sea- 
son, two  to  four  shoots 
started  from  near  the  top 
of  each  shortened  branch. 
If  a  similar  treatment  be 
given  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year,  still  other  lat- 
eral growths  will  arise  the 
following  year,  and  the  tree  116'  Diaeram  to  rePre' 

sent  cutting-back  of 

will     have     far     too    many  young  tree. 

branches.    Three  things  can 

now  be  done.  The  existing  branches  may  be 
headed -in  as  represented  by  the  two  long  lines  ; 
some  of  the  branches  may  be  cut  away  bodily, 


160  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

as  shown  by  the  several  short  bars;  the  treat- 
ment may  be  a  combination  of  these  two.  One 
thing  is  clear:  the  tree  now  has  too  many  branches 
for  its  size,  and  some  of  them  (say  half  of  the 
secondary  ones)  should  be  cut  away.  Whether 
any  further,  heading -in  shall  be  done,  is  a  local 
question.  If  the  tree  is  making  a  growth  of 
three  feet  or  more,  heading- in  would  probably  be 
advisable.  This  heading -in  tends  to  make  the 
branches  thick  and  stocky,  thereby  enabling  them 
to  support  the  forthcoming  crops  of  fruit.  As 
the  tree  approaches  maturity,  heading- in  may  be 
less  frequent  and  less  severe,  and  it  may  even- 
tually cease. 

To  every  one  who  contemplates  the  cutting -back 
of  trees,  it  should  be  said  that  heading -in  neces- 
sitates more  pruning  in  the  interior  of   the  top 
This  is  particularly  true  of   early  summer  prun 
ing,  which   often    causes   new  lateral   growths  to 
become   so   numerous   as  to   be  very  troublesome 
(as,  for  example,  in  summer  pruning  of  grapes). 

The  writer,  then,  believes  in  heading-in  vig- 
orous young  fruit  trees  of  very  strong -growing 
varieties,  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  a  stockier 
growth  of  the  branches  and  of  promoting  the 
early  branching  of  the  main  or  scaffold  limbs. 
As  the  tree  increases  in  age,  the  heading-in 
should  be  less  and  less,  and  should  generally 
cease  when  full  bearing  arrives.  If  the  mature 
tree  grows  too  rapidly,  the  fundamental  correc- 


OBSTRUCTING    THE    SAP  161 

tive  is  to  withhold  tillage  or  manure.  Another 
motive  for  heading- in  is  merely  to  keep  the  tree 
in  shape,  or  to  trim  into  some  desired  form.  This 
is  a  matter  of  a  personal  ideal,  and,  although  the 
writer's  ideal  is  counter  to  this,  there  is  no  arbi- 
trary standard  by  which  the  one  ideal  or  the  other 
is  to  be  judged.  The  writer  believes  that  an  open- 
centered  and  free -growing  fruit-tree  is  generally 
preferable  to  a  compact -headed  and  sheared -in 
tree,  but  most  excellent  commercial  results,  par- 
ticularly in  stone-fruits,  are  often  secured  under 
the  latter  method  of  tree- growing.  The  orchardist 
should  determine  his  own  purpose  when  he  begins 
to  prune  his  trees,  and  then  carry  out  his  plan 
systematically  and  logically  to  the  end.  Aside 
from  these  purposes,  there  remain  the  necessary 
heading-in  of  dwarfs  (Chap.  V.)  and  the  heading-in 
for  production  of  fruit -buds  (Section  15). 

10.  An  obstruction  just  above  a  bud  or  limb 
tends  to  produce  strong  longitudinal  growth 
in  that  part ;  an  obstruction  below  it  tends 
to  produce  a  thickening  of  the  part  and  a 
quiescent  state. 

The  obstruction  below  the  bud  tends  to  cut  off 
the  supply  of  water,  upon  which  rapid  growth 
largely  depends ;  but  the  deposition  of  elaborated 
materials  from  the  leaves  builds  up  tissue. 
Since  rapid  wood  growth  is  hindered  because  of 
the  obstruction  to  the  up  ward -moving  sap,  the 


162  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

parts  tend  to  thicken  rather  than  to  elongate.  We 
are  already  prepared  for  these  assertions  from 
the  study  of  girdling  (Figs.  95,  96,  97,  107). 

A  complete  obstruction  amounts  to  a  severing 
of  the  shoot  or  heading- in  ;  and  we  have  already 
found  (Section  9)  that  heading -in  tends  to  de- 
velop strong  growths  from  the  lateral  buds.  The 
common  methods  of  obstructing  the  movements 
of  sap  are  by  girdling  or  ringing,  notching,  and 
bending  or  twisting  the  shoot.  Girdling  by  the  re- 
moval of  bark,  however,  is  such  a  complete  ob- 
struction as  to  starve  the  part  below  the  girdle, 
and  the  statements  which  may  be  made  concern- 
ing its  effects  do  not  always  apply  to  notching  and 
bending  the  shoot.  (See  discussion  in  Chap.  V.) 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  upward  move- 
ment of  sap  takes  place  in  the  young  or  sap- 
wood,  and  a  notch  only  through  the  bark  does 
not  directly  affect  this  movement.  The  downward 
movement  takes  place  in  the  inner  bark,  or  bast, 
and  a  notch  only  through  the  bark  is,  therefore, 
able  to  check  it.  A  notch  through  both  the  bark 
and  sapwood  cuts  off  both  movements  and  is  equiv- 
alent, in  this  respect,  to  cutting  off  the  shoot. 

11.  Checking  growth,  so  long  as  the  plant  re- 
mains strong  and  healthy,  induces  fruitful- 
ness. 

Very  strong  growth  is  usually  at  the  expense  of 
fruit -bearing.  Tilling  and  manuring  may  be 


FRUIT -BEARING    IS    A    HABIT  163 

carried  so  far  as  to  make  the  plant  over -vigorous 
and  under -fruitful.  Heavy  pruning  may  do  the 
same.  Other  conditions  aside,  deep  notching  of 
the  twig  above  a  bud,  tends  to  make  the  bud  pro- 
duce a  long,  woody  shoot;  notching  below  the 
bud  tends  to  make  it  develop  a  fruit -spur  (see 
Section  13).  Heading -in  tends  to  start  woody 
shoots  from  the  buds  near  the  cut.  Girdling 
just  through  the  bark  (or  ringing)  tends  to  de- 
velop fruit-buds  above  the  wound.  If,  however, 
the  girdle  is  below  the  foliage  (that  is,  on  the 
stem  or  trunk),  new  shoots  which  may  arise  below 
the  wound  must  grow  at  the  expense  of  material 
stored  in  the  part  below  the  wound ;  and  if  such 
stored  nutriment  is  small,  shoots  may  not  be  able 
to  start.  Girdling  by  cutting  through  the  young 
wood  tends  to  develop  strong  growth  below  the 
girdle  and  to  starve  and  kill  all  the  parts  above  it. 
In  a  word,  a  strong  supply  of  root -sap  tends  to 
stimulate  wood  growth  ;  a  pronounced  deposition 
of  elaborated  food  tends  to  develop  fruit -buds. 

12.  Fruit -bearing  is  determined  more  by  the 
habitual  performance  and  condition  of  the 
plant  than  by  the  kind  or  extent  of  pruning; 
it  is  associated  with  a  quiescent  rather  than 
with  a  stimulated  or  fitful  state ;  and  the 
habit  is  more  amenable  to  treatment  when 
the  plant  is  young  than  when  it  is  old. 

Plants  vary  greatly  in  fruit -bearing.     Some  of 


164  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

this  variation  is  a  matter  of  individuality.  No 
two  trees  are  alike  in  this  respect  any  more  than 
they  are  in  form  of  top  or  length  of  life. 
Some  of  the  variation,  however,  is  due  to  soil  or 
other  environment.  It  is  natural,  however,  for 
plants  to  bear,  and  when  they  once  come  into 
bearing  they  should  be  maintained  in  that  habit 
by  continuous  good  care.  With  such  plants,  any 
treatment  which  greatly  disturbs  their  equilibrium 
tends  to  break  or  upset  the  bearing  habit.  If, 
however,  through  neglect  or  poor  management, 
plants  have  never  acquired  a  bearing  habit,  the 
grower  may  experiment,  hoping  to  find  something 
which  will  bring  them  into  fruit.  One  type  of 
experiment  is  to  change  the  management  of  the 
land ;  another  is  to  modify  the  plant -food ;  an- 
other is  to  change  the  method  of  pruning;  another 
is  to  give  treatment  for  insects  and  diseases. 

The  principle  under  discussion  is  the  most  im- 
pprtant  one  enunciatedin  this  hook,  from  the 
fact  lihaTMt—aflivises  the  fruit-grower  to  depend 
more  on  good,  thoughtful  and  consecutive  man- 
agement of  his  plants  year  by  year  than  upon  any 
disconnected,  spasmodic  or  unusual  treatments 
now  and  then.  A  good  plan  moderately  worked 
out  is  better  than  a  hundred  experiments. 

Let  us  apply  these  reflections  to  the  treatment 
of  a  neglected  and  unfruitful  apple  orchard. 
The  general  advice  is  to  till,  fertilize,  prune  and 
spray ;  and  this  advice  is  good.  The  pruning, 


OVER -BEARING  165 

however,  has  more  effect  in  bringing  the  trees 
into  shape  and  in  correcting  the  neglect  of  pre- 
ceding years  than  in  directly  inducing  fruit -bear- 
ing. A  heavy  pruning  adds  vigor  and  produces 
new  wood  (Sections  1,  3).  The  orchard  is  reno- 
vated and  rejuvenated,  and  the  grower  may  then 
begin  and  carry  forward  a  consecutive  treatment, 
which  he  should  have  begun  when  the  trees  were 
planted.  After  two  or  three  years,  the  trees  begin 
to  steady  down,  and  fruit -bearing  should  then 
begin;  but  fruit -bearing  cannot  be  maintained  if 
the  orchard  is  allowed  to  lapse  into  its  former 
condition. 

We  are  now  able  to  see  that  the  common  habit 
of  pruning  the  orchard  heroically  every  two  or 
three  years  is  one  of  the  very  best  means  of 
keeping  the  trees  unbalanced  and  upset,  and  of  in- 
ducing wood  growth,  and  thereby  preventing  fruit- 
bearing.  All  efforts  to  make  plants  bear  annually 
must  fail  unless  consecutive  good  care  is  given 
year  by  year.  Light  pruning  every  year  is  more 
useful  than  the  same  aggregate  amount  of  pruning 
given  only  in  occasional  or  even  iu  alternate  years. 

Over -bearing  is  itself  a  disturbance  of  equilib- 
rium, and  is  almost  necessarily  followed  by  a  reac- 
tion of  under -bearing.  This  corollary  has  such  im- 
portant bearing  on  practice  that  it  should  receive 
careful  attention.  One  extreme  follows  another, 
and  the  oftener  these  extremes  occur  the  greater  is 
the  likelihood  that  they  will  become  an  unremedi- 


166  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    PRUNING 

able  or  fixed  habit  of  the  plant.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  habit  of  alternate  bearing  is  most 
pronounced  in  plants  of  long  life,  suggesting  that 
the  habit  is  largely,  if  not  wholly,  the  result  of 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  over -bearing  while  the 
plant  was  young.  Apples  and  pears  are  par- 
ticularly given  to  alternate  bearing,  plums  and 
peaches  less  so,  bush -fruits  still  less,  and  strawber- 
ries not  at  all.  It  is  a  question,  therefore,  if  any 
treatment  can  set  some  old  orchards  into  annual 
bearing.  The  habit  of  alternate  cropping  may 
have  become  too  fixed  to  be  changed;  and,  at  all 
events,  pruning  is  only  one  of  the  means  of  over- 
coming and  correcting  the  habit  (see  Section  14). 
Although  it  is  a  cardinal  principle  in  horticul- 
ture that  checking  growth  induces  fruitfulness,  it- 
is  only  a  means  of  inducing  a  bearing  habit;  and 
when  this  habit  has  once  been  secured,  every 
effort  should  be  exerted  to  maintain  it.  It  does 
not  follow,  however,  that  trees  of  slow  growth  are 
necessarily  most  fruitful.  The  most  fruitful  apple 
tree  I  know  is  one  which  has  made  a  very  heavy 
growth  from  the  beginning ;  but  the  bearing 
habit  was  early  induced  by  good  tillage  and  good 
feeding,  and  the  extra  growth  enables  it  to  bear 
the  more  fruit.  This  bearing  habit,  as  I  have 
said  (page  163),  is  sometimes  a  matter  of  individ- 
uality in  the  plant,  sometimes  a  question  of  va- 
riety, and  oftener  a  question  of  good  and  rational 
care  begun  when  the  plant  is  young, 


SPECIAL    PRACTICES  167 

13.  All  means  of  obstructing  the  movement  of 
sap — as  notching,  shredding,  bending,  twist- 
ing, girdling  —  are  matters  of  special  and 
local  application,  and  are  to  be  associated 
more  with  modes  of  training  than  with  prun- 
ing proper. 

This  principle  is  the  complement  of  Section  12. 
If  the  habitual  performance  of  the  plant — in- 
duced by  consecutive  rational  treatment — deter- 
mines its  usefulness,  then  the  treatment  of  indi- 
vidual buds  and  spurs  must  be  merely  incidental 
and  special  matters.  The  fact  is,  that  all  the 
advice  in  respect  to  notching,  bending,  and  the 
like,  is  born  of  the  amateur  and  garden  -  culture 
fruit-growing  of  the  Old  World.  Whether  the 
authors  were  conscious  of  the  fact  or  not,  our 
older  American  pomological  writings  are  direct 
offshoots  of  European  small -area  practices.  The 
emphasis  is  placed  first  on  varieties,  and  always 
on  facts  rather  than  on  principles.  In  vegetable 
gardening  literature  the  same  has  been  emphati- 
cally true,  and  it  was  not  until  Henderson  wrote 
his  "Gardening  for  Profit"  that  the  large -area  and 
commercial  American  gardening  found  its  tongue; 
but  even  Henderson  followed  the  detached  and 
cyclopedic  method  of  arrangement,  which  is  born 
of  a  desire  for  facts  and  ready -reference  rather 
than  for  great  truths  and  principles.  But  the 
transcendent  merit  of  Henderson's  book — which 
marks  an  epoch  in  American  horticultural  litera- 


168  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

ture — is  the  fact  that  it  caught  the  rising  com- 
mercial spirit  of  the  time  and  threw  off  the  bonds 
of  the  amateur. 

These  remarks  will,  I  hope,  put  the  reader  in 
the  right  attitude  towards  all  these  petty  matters 
of  pruning,  as  it  will  towards  the  common  fault 
of  putting  emphasis  first  on  varieties  and  other 
isolated,  local  and  personal  facts.  If  a  person  must 
train  his  pear  tree  or  peach  tree  to  a  wall  or  a 
trellis,  then  he  must  perforce  count  his  buds, 
force  spurs  to  arise  at  stated  intervals,  and  be 
familiar  with  the  refinements  of  pinching,  ring- 
ing and  notching  Grape  training  is  much  con- 
fused because  people  do  not  distinguish  that  it 
involves  two  sets  of  ideas, — the  pruning  to  remove 
superfluous  wood,  and  the  training  into  some  set 
form.  The  number  of  buds  to  leave  on  the  cane 
depends  more  on  the  system  of  training  than  on 
the  principles  of  pruning. 

We  have  already  enunciated  a  principle  which 
underlies  the  results  of  the  notching  and  bend- 
ing of  shoots  (Section  10).  Full  directions  for 
performing  these  operations  may  be  found  in 
European  writings.  It  may  only  be  said  here  that 
these  practices  are  not  generally  productive  of 
predictable  results  in  fruit -bearing;  but  the  ob- 
struction to  the  movement  of  elaborated  sap 
tends  to  develop  fruit,  whereas  the  obstruction 
to  the  movement  of  crude  or  root -sap  tends  to 
develop  wood. 


EFFECTS    OF    NOTCHING  169 

Notching  into  the  wood  above  a  bud  tends  to 
produce  strong  growth  from  that  bud.  Notch- 
ing just  through  the  bark  above  a  bud,  tends  to 
weaken  the  bud,  because  the  root -sap  is  not 
stopped  and  the  elaborated  sap  is  stopped. 
Notching  into  the  wood  below  a  bud  tends  to 
pile  up  reserve  materials  at  the  bud  and  thereby 
to  induce  fruit -bear ing.  Notching  just  through 
the  bark  below  a  bud  tends  to  pile  up  tissue  at 
the  bud,  but  since  the  root -sap  is  not  cut  off,  the 
bud  may  use  this  tissue  in  rapid  growth,  and 
fruit-bearing,  therefore,  may  not  be  induced.  (See 
remarks  on  page  162.) 

Girdling  or  ringing  (practice  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter V.)  tends  to  develop  fruit -buds  above  the 
girdle.  Bending  the  shoot  to  a  horizontal  or 
deflexed  position  tends  to  lessen  growth,  per- 
haps because  of  its  position,  but  chiefly  because 
of  the  kinking  or  modification  of  the  tissues 
at  the  bend. 

The  following  extracts  from  recent  studies  by 
Koopmann*  give  a  clear  conception  of  the  effects 
of  notching: 

"Notches  are  made  on  twigs  of  one  year's  growth  or  more, 
to  influence  a  particular  bud  in  various  ways,  or  they  are 


*Karl  Koopmann,  "  Elementarlehren  aus  dem  Gebiete  des  Baumschnitts" 
in  Landwirtschaftliche  Jahrbiicher,  xxv.  (1896),  heft  4  u.  5.  Koopmann's 
studies  in  pruning  have  been  commended  by  state  and  society  medals. 
This  memoir  gives  copious  references  to  the  German  literature  of  prun- 
ing. A  most  significant  conclusion  of  this  extensive  study  of  special 
methods  of  pruning-treatments  is  the  following  sentence  (which  the 


OF   TRK 

TJNIVERSITY 


170  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

made  below  or  above  a  twig  in  order  to  influence  the  de- 
velopment of  this  twig,  or  of  a  larger  part  of  a  tree. 

"Notches  in  the  bark  under  a  bud  are  equivalent  to  one- 
third  or  one-fourth  girdle,  and  can  be  made  as  girdles 
are.  The  effect  of  the  operation  in  causing  the  production 
of  fruit  is  confined,  in  this  case,  to  a  single  bud ;  at  least  a 
more  extended  influence  on  the  parts  above  it  is  hard  to 
observe,  and  probably  does  not  exist,  as  the  hindrance  to 
sap  movement  is  very  small,  and  the  root  is  not  essentially 
drawn  into  participation.  If,  however,  many  such  notches 
or  partial  girdles  are  made  on  a  twig  and  following  each 
other  closely,  as  perhaps  in  the  case  of  following  the  spiral 
of  the  bud  positions,  the  effect  must  be  more  and  more 
nearly  that  of  a  complete  girdle. 

"A  notch  above  a  bud  into  the  sap -carry  ing  wood  has  a 
contrary  effect,  as  of  a  one-third  or  one-fourth  cutting-back, 
which  really  is  done.  If  the  twig  were  cut  off  at  the  same 
point,  a  large  number  of  rapidly-growing  woody  shoots 
would  be  expected,  particularly  if  the  cutting-back  were 
done  in  older  wood.  The  deeper  into  the  sap- carrying 
tissues  the  knife  advances,  the  more  pronounced  must  be 
the  result.  The  crude  sap  taken  up  by  the  root  and  not 
directly  of  use  in  building  tissue,  c^in  only  do  the  work  of 
fitting  for  use  the  stored  reserve  materials.  For  these 
reserve  materials,  thus  set  into  solution,  there  is  no  other 
outlet  than  that  they  be  worked  up  and  used  in  a  leaf- 
bud  that  had  remained  dormant  or  in  a  newly  forming 
adventitious  bud  below  the  notch.  However,  as  soon  as 


student  should  consider  in  connection  with  our  Section  12) :  "  Je  weniger 
wir  zu  sehneiden  haben  am  Baum,  desto  gesunder  bleibt  er  und  desto 
schoner  entwickeln  sich  die  Friichte"  (The  less  we  are  obliged  to  cut  a 
tree,  the  sounder  it  remains  and  the  finer  its  fruits  develop).  This 
sentence  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  that  Koopmann  would  discourage 
pruning,  but  that  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  resort  to  pruning  as  little  as 
possible,  and  yet  obtain  the  desired  results. 

The  student  will  find  an  excellent  account  of  special  treatments  of  pear 
shoots  and  spurs  in  Opoix's  "La  Culture  du  Poirier,"  Paris,  1896. 


EFFECTS    OF    NOTCHING  171 

growth  has  taken  place,  the  organ,  whether  originally  weak 
or  strong  of  constitution,  is  stimulated  to  the  greatest 
activity  through  the  energetic  up  ward -pushing  root-sap, 
and  the  result  of  this  is,  by  fall,  a  wood  branch  of  luxu- 
rious development. 

"A  pronounced  notch  in  very  old  wood  calls  forth  either 
a  very  rank  twig  or  is  without  effect.  In  these  cases,  it  is 
evidently  caused  by  the  absence  of  a  bud  or  a  location  for 
one.  If  untoward  conditions  of  nutrition  are  present,  it 
may  possibly  be  due  to  a  defective  storage  of  the  necessary 
reserve  materials.  This  latter  supposition  it  might  be  diffi- 
cult to  prove. 

"  The  freezing  of  buds  can  call  forth  similar  results  on  the 
youngest  wood,  as  those  just  described  for  old  wood  on 
which  there  are,  in  general,  no  buds  able  to  grow.  On 
many  plants  the  buds  suffer  sooner  than  the  cambium  layer 
of  the  wood.  This  is  less  noticeable  on  orchard  wood  than 
on  many  natural  woods;  on  the  latter,  in  spite  of  the 
strongest  flow  of  sap,  the  sprouts  will  be  missed  under 
such  circumstances. 

w  The  notchings  spoken  of  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  have 
great  importance  to  the  fruit-grower,  partly  in  the  shaping 
of  the  tree  and  partly  in  the  production  of  a  balance  in 
the  branching  (or  clothing)  of  t-he  scaffold  limbs  of  dwarf 
orchard  trees.  But  the  notches  above  a  bud  into  the  bark, 
and  under  a  bud  into  the  wood,  cannot  attain  any  impor- 
tance in  practice. 

"  From  what  is  known  about  the  circulation  and  effect  of 
the  sap,  it  may  follow  with  some  degree  of  clearness  that 
a  notch  above  a  bud,  which  removes  but  the  bark  and  bast 
layers,  must  tend  to  enfeeble  and  prevent  sprouting,  be- 
cause the  upward -moving  sap  is  not  stopped  at  the  bud,  and 
the  products  of  assimilation,  which  are  a  surplus  from  the 
leaves,  are  withheld  from  the  bud  as  long  as  the  wound  is 
open.  Many  practical  experiments  with  this  notch  gave^ 
however,  chiefly  two  results.  In  most  cases  no  marked 


172  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

change  could  be  determined  on  the  bud.  It  remained  dor- 
mant, and  thereby  passed  naturally  to  its  destruction, 
whether  more  rapidly  than  other  buds  not  artificially  in- 
fluenced, we  have  so  far  not  been  able  to  determine.  In 
many  other  cases,  a  sprout  did  develop  which  sometimes 
grew  into  a  long  shoot.  This  appearance  made  the  matter 
very  unclear,  until  it  was  noticed  that  in  such  cases  the  cuts 
had  not  been  made  with  the  care  which  they  require.  The 
bark  and  bast  layers  had  been  removed,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  younger  layers  of  wood  had  been  injured,  as  ap- 
peared very  prominently  in  longitudinal  sections. 

"  There  yet  remains  the  notching  into  the  wood  below  a 
bud,  and  this,  again,  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  partial  cut- 
ting-back. Through  such  a  notch  the  bud  is  cut  off  from 
the  root,  and  the  cambium  fluids  are  piled  up  at  the  bud, 
which  is,  therefore,  too  abundantly  supplied  with  reserve 
materials  without  being  itself  caused  to  grow.  The  result 
is  similar  to  the  notching  into  the  bark,  only  the  wound  is 
larger,  and  therefore  takes  a  longer  time  to  heal.  The 
deeper  the  sap -carrying  wood -layers  are  cut,  the  less  is  the 
tendency  of  the  bud  to  develop  a  shoot,  and  it  usually  re- 
mains as  a  well -developed  fruit-bud  without  any  clearly 
observable  lengthening  of  the  axis,  as  though  sleeping;  or 
it  develops  a  leaf  rosette,  in  order  to  bear  fruit  the  next 
year.  A  notch  in  younger  wood,  so  executed  between  two 
buds  that  both  are  equally  influenced,  results  always  in  a 
woody  shoot  from  the  lower  one  and  a  fruit-bud,  or  a  very 
small  fruit- spur  terminated  by  a  fruit-bud,  from  the  upper 
one;  the  woody  shoot  is  self -active,  the  fruit-bud  seem- 
ingly a  parasitic  creation.  As  the  notch  into  the  bark  under 
the  buds,  with  reference  to  the  production  of  fruit-spurs, 
has  generally  the  same  effect  as  a  notch  into  the  wood,  the 
latter  is  superfluous.  A  slight  damage  to  the  outer  wood 
(splintschicht),  however,  does  not  in  any  way  lessen  the 
expected  result. 
"While  in  the  foregoing  we  have  kept  in  view  the  effect  of 


EFFECTS    OF    NOTCHING  173 

notches  on  single  buds,  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject requires  a  short  notice  of  the  influence  which  similar 
notches  exert  on  already  existing  branches.  Bark-notches 
above  or  below  a  branch  bearing  spurs  act  in  a  very  slight 
degree  on  the  branch  in  question ;  a  complete  girdle  around 
the  base  of  the  branch  acts,  of  course,  as  an  ordinary 
girdle.  A  quarter  girdle  on  the  under  side  causes  the  same 
effect,  but  in  a  small  degree,  for  the  stopping  of  the  cam- 
bium fluids  is  almost  completely  obviated  by  the  possibility 
of  their  moving  off  to  one  side.  An  upper  cut  out  of  the 
bark  can  also  have  but  the  same  small  influence  on  the 
spurs  of  the  branch  under  experiment,  as  the  cut  attains  the 
importance  of  a  quarter  girdle  to  the  spurs  while  the  branch 
itself  can  in  no  way  be  influenced  by  this  bark -notching, 
because  the  downward -flowing  cambium  fluid  from  the 
spurs  can,  of  course,  be  held  back,  but  cannot  exert  an  in- 
fluence on  the  branching  below  the  girdle.  In  practice, 
therefore,  such  bark  injuries  have  no  importance  whatever. 

"It  is  otherwise  with  vigorous  notches  in  the  wood  below 
or  above  a  branch.  By  means  of  these  notches  the  root -sap 
is  either  cut  off  or  led  to  these  branches.  The  more  vig- 
orous the  notching  on  a  spur  above  one  of  its  branches, 
the  more  the  latter  receive  of  the  crude  sap,  and  the  leaves 
are  the  more  stimulated  to  activity;  the  leaves  become 
larger,  the  internodes  of  greater  length,  the  number  of  shoots 
and  leaves  is  increased,  and  an  increased  production  of 
wood  is  the  result.  Directly  opposite  is  the  effect  of  a  notch 
under  a  branch  or  twig.  A  large  portion  of  the  supply 
destined  for  the  assimilating  organs  is  cut  off  from  the 
branch,  and  the  diminished  production  of  wood  is  a  natural 
consequence.  The  sap  hindered  in  its  course  is  carried  to 
other  branches  in  increased  quantities,  and  particularly  to 
one  which  may  be  notched  above  and  therefore  already 
favored,  if  such  should  happen  to  be  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  first. 

"  With  reference  to  the  technical  execution  of  the  notches, 


174  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

it  may  be  said  that  they  are  made  in  the  bark  with  a  knife 
in  simple  notch  form,  or  like  a  half -moon.  As  to  the  notch 
in  the  wood,  the  simple  notch  is  used,  also  a  gable-like 
cut.  The  latter  seems  to  have  a  slightly  increased  effect. 
In  place  of  the  notches,  in  wood  of  a  greater  age  than  six 
years,  carefully  made  simple  saw  cuts,  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  of  the  spur,  or  roof -like  in  form  above  or  below 
the  organs  to  be  influenced — aggregations  of  buds,  twigs  or 
branches— are  more  desirable,  as  notches  generally  cause 
too  large  wounds  if  they  are  to  enter  the  wood  to  a  sufficient 
depth.  A  saw  cut  made  at  the  proper  time  in  the  early 
spring  heals  outwardly  in  from  six  to  eight  weeks,  although 
it  causes  in  the  wood  a  not  insignificant  wound,  and  can 
cause  necrotic  appearances  on  sickly  trees.  As,  however, 
the  never-healing  wood  wounds  are  protected  from  injurious 
influences  from  without  by  walling  over,  permanent  ill 
results  need  not  be  feared.  Weak  or  sickly  trees  and  stone 
fruits  should  be  spared  from  such  treatment  as  much  as 
possible,  as  every  disease -producing  organism  is  given  a 
new  ground  to  occupy  by  such  saw  cuts." 

14.  Pruning  may  be  made  a  means  of  thinning 
the  fruit ;  and  thereby  it  may  indirectly 
contribute  to  the  control  of  the  bearing 
year  of  the  plants. 

Fruit  is  thinned  both  by  picking  it  off  and  by 
removing  the  buds  which  are  to  bear  it.  The 
removing  of  the  buds  may  be  accomplished  ex- 
peditiously  by  pruning.  This  pruning  may  be 
the  heading-back  of  shoots  upon  which  fruit-buds 
are  borne  or  the  removal  of  fruit -spurs.  The 
operator  must  first  know  the  mode  in  which  the 
plant  bears  its  flower-buds.  Heading-back  of  the 


EFFECT    OF    THINNING    THE    FRUIT  175 

annual  growth  thins  peaches,  quinces,  raspber- 
ries, blackberries,  black  currants,  and,  to  a  less 
extent,  red  and  white  currants,  and  grapes, — all 
those  plants  which  develop  blossom -buds  on  the 
wood  of  the  last  season,  or  which  have  a  co- 
terminal  habit  (page  59)  of  fruit -bearing.  The 
great  disadvantage  of  thinning  fruit  by  means 
of  pruning  is  the  impossibility  of  knowing  how 
many  buds  or  young  fruits  may  subsequently  be 
destroyed  by  cold,  insects  or  diseases.  Yet  the 
practice  should  be  more  generally  in  vogue,  for 
in  most  cases  of  too  heavy  prospective  fruit- 
bearing  the  danger  can  be  partially  averted  by 
a  cheaper  means  than  hand-picking  the  young 
fruits.  With  tender  fruits  and  in  cold  climates, 
this  thinning  by  pruning  should  be  delayed  until 
danger  of  winter- injury  is  thought  to  be  past. 

The  second  part  of  the  proposition  is  very  im- 
portant,— the  fact  that  the  energies  of  the  tree 
can  be  conserved  by  thinning  the  fruit.  This  is 
really  a  corollary  of  Section  12.  It  is  necessary 
to  discover  just  how  this  conservation  comes 
about.  We  have  observed  (see  Figs.  13,  14,  15) 
that  there  is  an  alternation  in  fruit- bearing  on 
the  individual  spur  because  the  demands  made 
by  the  fruit  are  so  great  that  a  fruit -bud  cannot 
develop  the  same  year.  In  the  year  of  fruit- 
bearing,  therefore,  a  small  leaf -bud  develops  to 
continue  the  spur  the  following  year ;  and  in  this 
following  and  barren  year,  a  fruit -bud  is  devel- 


176  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

oped  for  bearing  the  succeeding  year.  Alternate- 
years'  fruit -bearing,  therefore,  is  largely  a  ques- 
tion of  food  supply.  If,  then,  we  are  to  make 
the  tree  bear  every  year,  we  must  supply  more 
food  materials  to  the  tree  (a  subject  which  is 
not  germane  to  this  treatise)  or  remove  part 
of  the  fruit.  Removing  the  fruit  affects  chiefly 
the  spur  on  which  it  is  borne  ;  in  large  fruits, 
as  a  rule,  one  spur,  or  one  branch  of  a  spur, 
matures  one  fruit :  therefore,  it  must  follow  that 
if  thinning  the  fruit  induces  annual  bearing  in 
some  spur -fruits,  it  must  be  because  one  spur  is 
made  to  bear  one  year  and  another  spur  to  bear 
another  year.  That  is,  there  is  an  alternation  in 
fruit -bearing  on  the  spur,  the  same  as  before, 
but  the  bearing  year  of  part  of  the  spurs  is 
changed  by  means  of  the  thinning.  It  would 
seem,  therefore,  that  the  thinning  will  have  most 
effect  in  inducing  annual  bearing  when  it  removes 
all  the  fruits  from  certain  spurs,  thereby  allowing 
these  spurs  to  bear  in  the  alternate  years.  But  it 
is  probable  that  no  amount  of  thinning  can  pro- 
duce an  annual -bearing  habit  unless  the  plants 
receive  other  necessary  consecutive  good  care. 
It  is  a  question  if  it  would  not  be  advisable  to 
change  the  bearing  year  of  entire  plants,  thereby 
allowing  part  of  the  trees  in  an  orchard  to  bear 
one  year  and  the  others  to  bear  the  following 
year. 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  bearing  year  of  fruit  trees 


CHANGING    THE    BEARING    YEAR  177 

can  often  be  changed  by  removing  the  crop  very 
early  in  the  season;  but  it  is  also  true  that  the 
trees  tend  to  revert  to  their  accustomed  habit, 
and  it  is  probable  that  this  reversion  is  the  more 
rapid  and  the  more  complete  the  older  the  tree 
(page  166)  and  the  more  indifferent  the  general 
treatment  of  it.  In  fruits  which  are  most  syste- 
matically thinned  (either  by  picking  the  fruit  or 
by  means  of  the  accustomed  methods  of  pruning) , 
annual  bearing  is  the  most  pronounced.  The 
grape  and  peach  are  examples.  Of  trees  which 
are  not  habitually  thinned,  it  seems  as  if  annual 
bearing  is  a  quality  of  short-lived  species  more 
than-  of  long-lived  species,  as  suggested  on  page 
166.  In  the  short-lived  species,  as  the  bush- 
fruits,  there  is  not  sufficient  time,  perhaps,  to 
allow  such  habits  to  become  thoroughly  fixed. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  alternation  in  fruit-bear- 
ing in  the  spurs  in  Figs.  13  and  14,  let  us  con- 
sider what  might  happen  if  the  fruit  were  re- 
moved when  very  small.  Fig.  117  tells  the  story. 
In  this  case,  the  very  young  fruit  was  removed, 
and  two  blossom -buds  have  developed  the  same 
season.  In  this  spur  the  bearing  year  is  changed. 
We  also  found  that  the  bearing  year  was  once 
changed  in  the  pear  spur  shown  in  Fig.  19.  I 
must  hasten  to  say,  however,  that  this  change 
in  the  bearing  year  does  not  always  follow  the 
removal  of  the  flowers  or  young  fruits,  for  very 
much  depends  on  the  habit  of  the  tree-,  as  well  as 


178  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    PRUNING 

on  its  general  thrift  and  vigor;  but  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  removing  the  flowers  or  very  young  fruits 
from  a  spur  or  branch  tends  to  cause  that  part 
to  bear  the  following  year. 

The  fact  that  work  is  expended  in  the  bearing 
of  fruit  may  be  understood   if   one  examines  the 
swellings  on  the  spurs  or  fruit- bearing  twigs  of 
pears.     In  Fig.  118,  these  swellings 
(are  seen  at  a  a.      The  scars  at  the 
ends     show    that    fruit    was     borne 
there.      In  the    transfer  of   food  to 
this  point  and    the  arrest  of   longi- 
tudinal   growth,    a    building    up   of 
mechanical  tissue   has  taken   place  ; 
and    it    is    probable    that    the    long 
Pear  fruit-  £r°wth     of     the     lateral     branches 
buds  resulting  (which,  in  this  case,  bear  only  leaf- 
from    the   re-  ku(is)  has  been  made  possible  by  the 

moval  of  fruit.  **'•-'•  mi  -i 

Natural  size      excess    of    nutriment.       The    reader 
must    not    confound    these   swellings 
with  the  thickening  due  to  mere  arrest  of    longi- 
tudinal growth,  as  shown  in  3,  Fig.  61  (which  is 
also  mentioned  in  Section  15). 

Chemical  tests  show  that  these  swellings  (like 
Fig.  118)  are  not  storage  reservoirs  of  plant -food. 
My  colleague,  Mr.  A.  L.  Knisely,  has  made  ex- 
aminations of  these  swellings  for  me,  and  found 
that  the  starch -like  contents  of  the  swellings  were 
less  than  that  of  vigorous  and  normal  shoots  of 
the  same  age.  In  normal  twigs,  the  moisture  was 


HEADING -IN    TO    PRODUCE    FRUIT 


179 


found  to  be  50.94  per  cent ;  in  swellings,  it  was 
59.20  per  cent.  In  both  samples,  the  contents  (as 
starch,  dextrine,  pentosans,  and  the  like)  were 
calculated  as  reducing  sugar.  In  normal  winter 
twigs,  the  reducing  sugar  was 
28  per  cent;  in  the  swellings, 
at  the  same  date,  it  was  27.1 
per  cent.  Calculated  to  fresh 
substance,  the  percentages  were 


118.     Swellings  on  pear,  resulting  from  fruit-bearing. 
Half  size. 

13.74  for  the  twigs  and  11.06  for  the  swellings. 
These  tests  still  further  show  that  these  swellings 
are  mechanical  tissue,  resulting  from  the  strain 
of  fruit -bearing,  and  that  they  are  not  to  be 


180  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     PRUNING 

looked   upon   as   conducing   in   any   way   to  sub- 
sequent fruitfulness  of  the  plant. 

15.  Heading -in  induces  fruitfulness  by  check- 
ing exuberant  growth  and  by  encouraging 
the  formation  of  short  lateral  growths. 

In  Section  9  we  have  discussed  effects  of  head- 
ing-in  on  the  growth  of  wood  and  the  form  of 
the  top  of  the  plant.  We  are  now  enquiring 
what  effect  it  has  in  inducing  fruit-bearing.  So 
far  as  heading -in  tends  to  check  woody  growth, 
it  conduces  to  the  formation  of  fruit -buds  ;  but 
very  heavy  heading-back  amounts  to  a  heavy 
pruning  and  it  may,  therefore,  conduce  to  the 
very  opposite  of  fruit  production.  Therefore, 
there  can  be  no  specific  statements  as  to  how 
much  or  how  frequent  heading -in  shall  be  to  in- 
duce productiveness.  Everything  depends  on  the 
vigor  and  age  of  tree,  extent  of  cutting,  and 
other  local  conditions.  In  fruit-trees  which  are 
making  a  normal  growth  (say  12  to  20  inches) 
at  bearing  age,  cutting  off  a  third  or  fourth  of 
the  annual  growth  may  be  advisable ;  but  it  must 
be  considered  that  this  cutting -back  may  have 
other  objects  than  the  inducing  of  fruit -bearing, 
such  as  thinning  the  fruit,  keeping  the  tree  in 
shape,  preventing  dwarf  trees  from  outgrowing 
their  stocks,  and  keeping  the  stature  small  in 
crowded  plantings.  Heading -in  to  induce  fruit- 
fulness  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  head- 


SEASON    FOR    PRUNING  181 

ing -in  of  young  trees  to  check  too  long  and 
slender  branches.  It  is  doubtful  if  an  occasional 
heading -in  has  much  effect  in  developing  fruit - 
bearing.  It  should  no  doubt  be  an  accustomed 
practice,  if  employed  at  all  for  this  purpose. 

There  is  no  question  that  heading -in  the  ter- 
minal growths  tends  to  develop  short  spur- 
like  branches  in  the  interior  of  the  top;  and  the 
tendency  of  such  branches  is  to  develop  fruit - 
buds.  However,  it  is  a  question  if  this  result 
is  not  an  advantage  to  training  rather  than  to 
the  ultimate  productiveness  of  the  tree.  That 
is,  it  concentrates  the  fruit  in  a  smaller  space; 
but  if  the  top  is  allowed  to  take  its  natural 
course,  it  will  probably  develop  as  great  pro- 
lificacy as  if  it  is  headed-  in.  It  is  often  a  dis- 
tinct advantage  of  heading- in  that  it  tends  to 
develop  fruit -bearing  early  in  the  lifetime  of  the 
plant.  As  a  matter  of  practice,  the  writer  believes 
that  the  value  of  heading- in  as  a  means  of  induc- 
ing fruit-bearing  has  been  overestimated. 

16.  The  season  in  which  pruning  is  done  has 
some  influence  on  fruit -bearing,  for  winter 
pruning  tends  to  produce  wood,  whereas 
summer  pruning  does  not. 

Plants  which  are  cut  in  midsummer,  or  later 
in  the  growing  season,  seem  to  have  the  power 
to  adjust  themselves  to  the  new  conditions  dur- 
ing the  same  season  (page  156).  That  is,  the 


182  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

effect  of  the  pruning  is  very  largely  taken  up 
before  the  return  of  spring,  which  is  the  season 
of  growth.  Plants  which  are  pruned  in  winter, 
or  any  time  during  the  dormant  period,  expend 
their  redundant  energy  at  once  in  growth,  upon 
the  return  of  the  growing  season.  Aside  from 
all  this,  the  removal  of  leaves  during  the  sum- 
mer reduces  the  working  or  elaborating  surface, 
and  thereby  tends  more  in  the  direction  of 
starving  or  weakening  the  plant  than  in  feed- 
ing or  strengthening  it.  It  is  well  known,  for 
example,  that  watersprouts  are  less  frequent 
following  summer  pruning  than  following  win- 
ter pruning.  These  remarks  are  necessarily  very 
general,  and  the  condition  of  the  plant  and 
amount  of  cutting  may  be  expected  to  obscure 
results  which  might  be  expected  to  transpire  in 
typical  or  selected  cases.  If  the  pruning  is 
such  as  to  check  wood  growth  without  percep- 
tibly weakening  the  plant,  fruit-bearing  is  gen- 
erally promoted ;  and  herein  lies  the  value  of 
summer  pinching  of  strong  or  leading  shoots. 
In  respect  to  the  proper  time  for  pinching, 
Sorauer  remarks :  *  "  The  greatest  success  will 
attend  the  process  if  the  pinching  takes  place 
just  at  the  period  when  the  buds  have  still 
sufficient  time  to  swell  up  and  become  stored 
with  food  material,  but  when  the  supply  of 
water  begins  to  diminish,  so  that  the  upper 

*«  Physiology  of  Plants,"  138. 


WHEN    DO    FRUIT -BUDS    FORM?  183 

buds  do  not  grow  out  into  long  laterals.  * 
To  prevent  disappointments,  we  state  emphat- 
ically,—  as  the  practice  is  very  common, —  that 
no  fixed  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  the  com- 
mencement of  summer  pruning.  Trees  may  even 
be  pinched  to  death.  The  favorable  time  for 
this  operation  depends  on  the  climate,  the  soil, 
the  variety  and  even  upon  the  individual  char- 
acteristics of  the  plant." 

The  reader  should  know  that  the  effect  of 
this  pinching  depends  very  much  on  the  gen- 
eral habit  and  vigor  of  the  plant,  and  that  it 
is  very  difficult  to  predict  results  unless  the 
particular  plant  has  been  under  training  for 
some  time  (and  preferably  from  the  time  it  was 
planted).  The  best  results  in  pinching  the  tips 
of  shoots  are  obtained  when  plants  are  trained 
to  definite  forms,  as  on  walls,  cordons,  in  glass 
houses,  or  in  arbitrary  pyramids  or  other  geo- 
metrical figures.  The  practice  is,  therefore,  of 
little  use  in  the  commercial  fruit-growing  of 
this  country. 

The  operator  must  not  expect  fruit -buds  to 
form  in  the  same  year  in  which  pinching  or 
heading -back  is  done,  although  such  immediate 
results  are  sometimes  obtained.  If  heading -in 
is  done  before  active  growth  has  ceased,  mis- 
chievous lateral  growths  may  be  expected  (Sec- 
tion 9)  ;  if  done  after  the  leaves  have  ceased 
to  be  active,  little  if  any  results  may  be  antici- 


184  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

pated.  Theoretically,  the  proper  time  is  just  as 
growth  begins  to  cease,  which,  in  the  North,  is 
in  early  summer  The  shoot  in  Fig.  12  (Stark 
apple)  was  cut  back  in  winter,  and  the  follow- 
ing season  the  fruit -bud  a  was  formed.  This 
was  a  comparatively  weak  shoot  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  tree.  Had  it  been  a  strong  termi- 
nal twig,  the  bud  a  would  probably  have  pro- 
duced a  long  shoot.  The  injury  to  the  shoot  3 
in  Fig.  61  (at  e)  occurred  about  midsummer. 
The  two  lateral  buds  received  an  extra  food 
supply  and  gave  rise  to  late -season  branchlets. 
The  parts  became  greatly  thickened,  but  only 
leaf -buds  formed.  It  is  probably  correct  to  say 
that  heading -in  and  pinching  exert  more  marked 
effects,  in  inducing  fruit -bearing,  in  subsequent 
years  and  in  proportion  to  the  persistency  with 
which  they  are  practiced,  than  in  the  very  year 
of  the  operation. 

Before  we  can  suggest  perfectly  rational  treat- 
ment to  produce  fruit -buds,  we  must  know  at 
what  period  in  the  formation  of  the  winter 
bud  the  differentiation  between  the  leaf -bud 
and  the  blossom- bud  takes  place.  This  question 
cannot  be  answered  with  our  present  knowledge. 
In  its  very  earliest  stages,  it  is  probable  that 
the  winter  bud  is  undifferentiated ;  but  its 
character  is  probably  determined  before  it  be- 
comes conspicuous  on  the  branch.  At  all  events, 
it  seems  to  be  settled,  as  a  matter  of  practice, 


PRUNING    ON    THE    PLAINS  185 

that  any  treatment  designed  to  produce  blossom- 
buds  must  be  made  before  midsummer  if  it  is 
to  have  effect  in  that  year.  In  general,  how- 
ever, as  has  been  said,  the  effect  of  treatment 
is  to  be  expected  in  the  year  or  years  follow- 
ing the  treatment,  rather  than  in  the  very  year 
in  which  it  is  applied. 

17.  The  effect  of  pruning,  as  well  as  the  neces- 
sity of  it,  depends  greatly  upon  locality 
and  climate. 

Not  only  does  the  vigor  of  plants  differ  widely 
in  different  places,  but  there  are  local  dangers  to 
be  avoided.  In  the  coldest  parts  of  the  country, 
winter -made  wounds  are  the  means  of  depriving 
the  tree  of  much  of  its  moisture  (page  143) ;  in 
such  regions,  plants  need  the  protection  of  a 
continuous  cover  of  bark.  In  the  hot  and  dry 
interior  regions,  sun- scalding  often  follows  very 
heavy  pruning,  and  there  has  thus  arisen  a  feeling 
that  trees  should  not  be  pruned  on  the  Plains. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  in  those  regions  out- 
door plants  need  less  pruning  than  in  humid  cli- 
mates, but  trees  which  need  to  be  so  heavily 
pruned  that  they  are  injured  by  sun- scald  are 
usually  those  which  have  been  neglected  in  the 
beginning.  On  this  subject  Card  writes*  as  fol- 
lows: 

"  Shall  we  prune  fruit  trees  in  the  West  ?     To  the  east- 
*Fred  W.  Card,  "Notes  on  Pruning",  Bull.  50,  Nebr.  Exp.  Sta.  1897. 


186  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

era  man  this  will  appear  like  a  foolish  question,  and  he 
will  at  once  say,  Why,  yes,  of  course  ;  prune  fruit  trees 
everywhere.  To  the  western  man  it  will  not  appear  so 
foolish ;  indeed,  many  men  upon  the  Plains  would  say 
No!  in  answer  to  this  question.  Where  is  the  trouble? 
Plainly  a  difference  in  conditions.  The  eastern  fruit-grower 
has  learned  by  experience  that  pruning  is  an  essential  part 
of  his  method  of  treatment.  The  western  grower,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  not  only  found  that  he  can  produce  good 
fruit  without  pruning,  but  has  sometimes  found  injurious 
results  from  it.  He  may,  therefore,  if  his  experience  is 
somewhat  limited,  jump  at  the  conclusion  that  all  prun- 
ing is  to  be  avoided.  Some  of  the  reasons  for  pruning 
which  apply  in  the  moister  climate  of  the  eastern  states 
lose  their  force  wholly,  or  in  part,  upon  the  Plains.  The 
eastern  grower  finds  it  necessary  to  thin  his  trees  and 
admit  light  and  air  to  produce  fruit  of  high  color  and 
good  flavor.  The  western  man,  on  the  other  hand,  finds 
that,  under  his  conditions  of  intense  sunlight  and  low 
humidity,  fruit  will  develop  color  well  regardless  of  such 
precautions.  The  eastern  grower,  if  he  neglects  this, 
may  find  his  fruit  suffering  from  attacks  of  fungous  dis- 
eases; but  in  general,  fungi  are  less  troublesome  in  the 
dryer  climate  of  the  Plains,  so  this  reason  likewise  loses 
its  force. 

"Yet  there  are  reasons  for  pruning  which  are  worthy 
of  consideration,  even  in  Nebraska.  It  is  frequently  essen- 
tial to  correct  bad  habits  of  growth  in  young  trees,  and 
this  occurs  as  often  in  one  climate  as  in  another.  Then, 
too,  a  tree  which  has  come  to  maturity  may  attempt  to 
do  more  than  it  can  perform,  so  that  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  thin  the  fruit.  This,  in  part,  can  be  done  by 
pruning.  In  the  case  of  small  fruits  and  grapes  it  is 
wholly  so  done,  though  with  trees  additional  measures  are 
often  needed.  Still  another  reason  would  make  itself  evi- 
dent to  any  one  who  would  pick  fruit  for  a  short  time  in 


PRUNING    IN    WASHINGTON  187 

some  of  the  trees  which  may  be  seen  in  Nebraska.  Pick- 
ing fruit  is  not  an  easy  task  under  the  best  of  conditions, 
and  when  the  tree  is  so  full  of  limbs  and  suckers  jthat  it 
becomes  almost  inaccessible,  the  work  is  doubly  aggravat- 
ing. Pruning  is  needed  in  Nebraska  as  well  as  in  New 
York,  but  the  methods  employed,  or  at  least  the  measure 
of  wood  which  is  cut  away,  will  need  to  be  varied.  In 
general,  it  should  be  much  less  severe  in  the  western 
states  than  in  the  Atlantic  states.  The  main  thing  needed 
is  to  watch  the  habit  of  growth  of  the  young  trees,  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  undesirable  and  crowding  limbs, 
and  to  remove  occasional  suckers  and  water-shoots  which 
may  spring  out  from  the  trunk  and  base  of  the  branches 
as  the  tree  gets  older. 

"  The  top  of  the  tree  needs  to  be  kept  more  dense  than 
in  moister  climates.  The  fruit  itself  is  much  less  likely 
to  suffer  from  shade  than  from  exposure  to  wind  and  sun. 
In  the  eastern  states  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  lower 
limbs  well  up  from  the  ground,  or  the  fruit  produced  upon 
them  will  be  lacking  in  color  and  flavor.  In  the  West 
this  is  an  unnecessary  precaution,  and  low-headed  trees 
are  much  in  favor  because  they  are  believed  to  suffer  less 
from  the  wind  and  to  protect  the  bodies  of  the  trees 
from  sun -scald." 

The  different  ideas  to  be  followed  in  two  parts 
of  one  state  are  set  forth  by  Balmer :  * 

"  Climatic  conditions  will  largely  determine  what  prac- 
tice we  shall  adopt  in  pruning  our  fruit  trees.  In  a  state 
like  Washington,  where  such  dissimilar  climatic  conditions 
exist  as  between  the  regions  west  of  the  Cascades  and 
the  regions  east  of  the  Cascades,  no  practice  can  be  laid 
down  that  will  be  applicable  to  both  sides  of  the  range. 
What  would  be  a  perfectly  proper  practice  west  of  the 

*J.  A.  Balmer,  "Pruning  Orchard  Trees, "Bull.  25, Wash.  Exp.  Sta.,  1896. 


188  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PRUNING 

Cascades,  where  the  sun  is  obscured  a  large  part  of  the 
year,  and  where  the  moisture  conditions  are  conducive  to 
a  large  wood  growth,  would  be  almost  suicidal  on  the  east 
side  of  the  range,  and  vice  versa.  Therefore  it  will  be 
necessary  to  adopt  a  different  practice  for  each  side. 

"Let  us  first  observe  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Eastern 
Washington.  Here  we  have  a  long,  dry  summer,  with  a 
fierce,  scorching  sun  and  strong,  drying  winds,  with  a 
maximum  rainfall  of  probably  less  than  eighteen  inches 
per  annum,  followed  by  a  severe  winter  with  fluctuating 
temperature  and  sudden  changes.  In  portions  of  the  fruit 
belt  there  is  barely  enough  natural  moisture  in  the"  ground 
to  sustain  a  tree.  Under  these  conditions  who  can  wonder 
that  trees  on  the  east  side  come  to  maturity  at  an  early 
age,  and  produce  fruit  at  a  time  in  their  lives  when  they 
ought  to  be  making  wood  growth  and  establishing  a 
strong,  healthy  frame  for  future  usefulness.  And  yet  con- 
ditions which  at  first  sight  would  seem  totally  unfitted  for 
the  production  of  healthy  trees  and  fine  fruit  are,  with 
the  aid  of  intelligent  cultivation  and  judicious  use  of 
water,  made  to  produce  abundantly  of  the  choicest  fruits 
of  the  earth. 

"There  is  no  question  in  my  mind  as  to  what  is  the 
proper  method  to  adopt  in  pruning  our  fruit  trees  on  the 
east  side  of  the  mountains.  We  must  prune  in  winter,  and 
prune  hard.  The  tendency  of  all  our  young  trees  is  to 
run  to  premature  fruiting,  cherries  carrying  a  crop  of 
fruit  at  two  years  old,  and  pears  and  apples  bearing  full 
crops  at  five  and  six  years  old.  To  overcome  this  ten- 
dency in  our  trees  we  must  practice  a  system  of  pruning 
that  is  conducive  to  wood  and  leaf  growth,  and  to  dis- 
courage all  forms  of  summer  pruning  and  pinching.  The 
practice  of  allowing  nature  to  have  her  sway  in  our 
orchards  has  been  tried  and  found  wanting.  A  tree  left 
to  nature's  way  will  soon  become  a  brushpile  in  the  air. 

"The  above  practice  is  recommended  for  all  regions  east 


HEALING    OF    LARGE    WOUNDS  189 

of  the  Cascades.  Trees  on  the  west  of  the  mountains 
should  be  treated  a  little  differently.  In  most  sections  on 
the  west  side,  and  especially  in  the  warmer  valleys,  trees 
make  an  extraordinary  wood  growth.  It  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  find  young  prunes  and  cherries  making  a  growth 
of  six  to  ten  feet  in  a  single  season.  The  excessive  mois- 
ture in  soil  and  atmosphere,  and  the  mild  climate,  are  con- 
ducive to  this  rapid  growth.  Trees  grow  late  in  the 
season,  and  there  is  some  difficulty  in  securing  thoroughly 
ripened  wood.  To  cut  back  severely  in  winter  aggravates 
the  evil,  and  more  and  longer  wood  is  the  result.  The 
way  to  check  this  excessive  growth  is  to  resort  to  sum- 
mer pruning  and  pinching  and  even  to  root -pruning. 

18.  The  healing  of  large  wounds  is  influenced 
chiefly  by  the  kind  of  plant,  the  general 
vigor  of  the  plant,  their  position  on  the 
plant,  the  length  of  the  stump,  and  the 
character — as  to  smoothness  or  roughness 
— of  the  surface ;  other  factors  are  the 
healthfulness  of  the  wood,  and  the  sea- 
son in  which  the  cut  is  made. 

These  questions  have  been  considered  in  detail 
in  Chapter  III.  Theoretically,  the  best  time  to 
make  the  cut,  so  far  as  healing  is  concerned,  is 
in  the  early  part  of  the  growing  season,  for  the 
healing  process  then  begins  without  delay;  but 
other  factors  exert  much  greater  influence  than 
the  mere  season  of  cutting.  Wounds  on  pome- 
fruits  (apples  and  pears)  heal  more  readily  than 
those  on  stone-fruits.  Those  on  the  common 
shade  and  timber  trees  (except  pines  and  spruces) 
usually  heal  very  quickly. 


190  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    PRUNING 

19.  Dressings    do    not    hasten    the    healing    of 

wounds,  but  they  allow  the  healing  to 
progress  unchecked  because  they  may  pre- 
vent disease ;  a  good  dressing,  therefore, 
is  one  which  is  antiseptic  and  durable, 
which  affords  mechanical  protection,  and 
which  does  not  itself  injure  the  tissues. 

The  various  questions  involved  in  this  state- 
ment have  been  somewhat  fully  discussed  in 
Chapter  III.,  in  which  it  was  concluded  that  lead 
paint  is  perhaps  the  best  single  dressing  or  pre- 
servative for  wood  wounds. 

20.  The  best  pruning  is  that  which  results  from 

a  definite  purpose  or  ideal,  and  tvhich  is 
founded  on  a  consideration  of  fundamen- 
tal principles  and  a  careful  study  of  all 
the  local  conditions;  and  special  prun- 
ing-treatments  designed  to  promote  fruit- 
bearing  are  of  secondary  importance  to 
the  consecutive  good  care  of  the  plant. 


PART  II 

THE    INCIDENTALS 


CHAPTEE  Y 


SOME   SPECIFIC   ADVICE 

Having  now  traversed  the  fundamental  prob- 
lems involved  in  the  pruning  of  plants,  we  may 
give  attention  to  various  details  of  practice. 
These  details  are  largely  personal  opinions,  and 
are,  therefore,  of  restricted  application;  for  prac- 
tice must  vary  with  every  personal  ideal  and  every 
environmental  factor.  The  advice  in  this  chap- 
ter is  not  given  with  the  expectation  that  the 
reader  shall  follow  it  literally,  but  it  may  suggest 
some  of  the  methods  which  may  be  employed  to 
secure  given  results.  The  reader  is  again  urged 
to  bear  in  mind  the  distinction  between  training 
or  trimming  the  plant  into  some  desired  form,  and 
pruning  for  definite  results  in  the  welfare  of  the 
plant  and  in  fruit -bearing. 

THE   FORM    OF    THE    TOP 

Much  of  the  discussion  respecting  the  best  way 
in  which  to  prune  young  plants  is  confused  be- 
cause the  disputants  are  not  agreed  upon  the  form 
of  top  which  it  is  desired  to  produce.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  different  treatments  must  be 
given  two  trees  if  one  is  to  have  a  high  head  and 

M  (193) 


194  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

one  a  low  head;  and  yet  persons  give  the  most 
dogmatic  advice  upon  the  pruning  of  newly -set 
trees,  without  once  stopping  to  consider  what  form 
or  height  of  tree  is  to  be  ultimately  obtained.  It 
will  be  well,  therefore,  to  have  a  brief  discussion 
of  the  form  of  the  top  before  considering  the 
details  of  practice. 

The  form  of  the  top  is  largely  a  matter  of  per- 
sonal preference,  as  we  have  already  said ;  but 
there  are  distinct  arguments  in  favor  of  various 
ideals.  It  is  not  the  province  of  this  book  to 
consider  these  arguments,  for  they  are  not  pri- 
marily matters  of  pruning.  The  book  desires 
only  to  aid  the  operator  in  working  out  his  ideal, 
not  in  deciding  what  ideal  is  best  for  his  condi- 
tions. Yet  a  few  general  hints  may  be  given. 

The  mental  ideal  has  freest  scope  in  ornamental 
plants,  for  questions  of  profit  and  loss  enter  very 
little  into  the  problem.  As  a  question  of  art,  it 
should  be  said  that  the  natural  habit  of  the  plant 
is,  in  nearly  all  instances,  far  better  than  an 
artificial  or  geometrical  habit.  This  is  both  be- 
cause of  the  greater  intrinsic  beauty  of  a  free- 
growing  tree  or  shrub,  and  because  the  plant  is 
less  important  for  its  own  sake  than  for  the  part 
it  contributes  to  the  general  foliage -mass  of  the 
place.  These  questions  are  somewhat  fully  dis- 
cussed in  "Garden -Making."  The  satisfaction 
derived  from  a  formal  bush  resides  in  the  perfect- 
ness  of  its  formality.  As  soon  as  it  becomes 


THE    FORMAL    HEAD 


195 


ragged,  it  is  unkempt,  and  is  neither  formal  nor 
free.  The  suggestion  is,  that  trees  and  shrubs 
which  are  trimmed  into  formal  shape  should  be 
sheared  several  times  dur- 
ing the  growing  season, 
not  in  winter  alone.  Fig. 
119  illustrates  the  point. 
The  bush  was  sheared  in 
winter.  The  operator 
wanted  a  flat -topped  and 
thick -topped  specimen  ; 
but  he  had  such  a  speci- 
men only  in  winter,  for 
the  bush  began  to  cover 
its  shame  with  the  first 
opportunity  of  spring, 
by  making  long  and  free 
growths. 

In  this  case  (Fig.  119), 
therefore,  the  strong  new 
growth  is  a  blemish,  because  the  operator  did  not 
want  it  (although  it  should  be  said  that  he  took 
the  very  best  means  to  secure  it  by  pruning 
heavily  in  winter).  In  a  fruit-tree,  however,  a 
similar  growth  might  not  be  a  blemish,  because 
the  object  of  heading -back  in  this  case  is  not  to 
produce  a  definite  form  of  tree,  but  to  keep  the 
plant  within  bounds,  and  to  modify  the  fruit- 
bearing  habit.  Fig.  120  shows  headed -in  plum 
trees  as  they  look  when  first  leaved  out.  Fig.  121 


119.    The  winter-sheared 
bush. 


196  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

shows  the  appearance  in  fall,  after  the  season 's 
growth  has  taken  place.  These  pictures  are  made 
from  selected  and  typical  trees,  as  grown  by  a  man 
in  the  famous  plum -growing  region  at  Geneva, 
New  York,  where  heading -in  is  much  practiced. 
From  one -third  to  two -thirds  of  the  annual 
growth  is  sheared  off  every  winter. 

In   distinction   from   these   plum   trees,  let  the 
reader  consider  Fig.  122.      This  picture  is  made 


120.    Headed-in  plum  trees.    May. 

from  a  typical  plum  tree  as  grown  by  a  New  York 
man  who  does  not  head -in  his  trees.  Both  these 
men  are  successful  plum -growers.  The  trees  bear 
as  well  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other.  Shall  I 
head -in  my  plum  trees?  That  depends  upon 
whether  you  want  trees  like  Fig.  120  or  Fig.  122, 
— that  is,  upon  whether  you  want  to  head  them 
in  or  whether  you  do  not ! 

The*  relative  merits  of  high  heads  or  low  heads 
for  fruit  trees  are  always  in  dispute.     This  con- 


HIGH    AND    LOW    HEADS 


197 


troversy  is  partly  the  result  of  confusion  of  ideas, 
and  partly  of  differing  mental  ideals  and  of  va- 
rying climates.  Two  factors  are  chiefly  con- 
cerned in  these  disputes, — the  question  of  ease  of 
cultivation,  and  the  question  of  injury  to  the 
trunk  by  sun -scald.  It  is  the  commonest  notion 
that  short  trunks  necessarily  make  low  heads,  and 
yet  anyone  who  can  see  a  tree  should  know  bet- 
ter. The  number  of  trunks  which  a  tree  has,  does 
not  determine  the  direction  of  the  leaf -bearing 
limbs.  The  tree  in 
Fig.  123  can  be 
worked  around  as 
easily  as  it  could  be 
if  it  had  only  one 
long  trunk.  In  fact, 
branches  which  start 
high  from  a  trunk 
are  very  apt  to  be- 
come horizontal  and 
to  droop.  There  must 
be  a  certain  number 
of  main  or  scaffold 
limbs  to  form  the 
head.  If  these  limbs 
are  taken  out  compar-  121. 
atively  low,  they  may 
be  trained  in  an  upright  direction  and  hold  their 
weight  and  position.  If  they  are  started  out  very 
high,  they  will  not  take  such  an  upright  direction, 


Headed-in  plum  tree. 
September. 


198 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


because  the  tree  will  not  grow  beyond  its  normal 
stature.  High -trained  trees  are  often  practically 
lowest -headed.  Tillage  is  as  easy  about  such  a 
tree  as  Fig.  124  as  about  one  like  Fig.  125;  and 


122.     Free-growing  plum  tree. 

the  former  will  often  hold  its  shape  the  longer  if 
properly  pruned.     The  question  of  the  relation  of 
modern  tillage  of   orchards  to  low   heads    is  dis- 
cussed in  "Principles  of  Fruit -Growing." 
In  regions  where   tree   trunks   are   apt   to  sun- 


HIGH    AND    LOW    HEADS 


199 


scald,  the  bodies  should  be  short.  In  nearly  all 
regions  outside  of  the  Atlantic  States  this  danger 
threatens,  and  it  is  often  serious  on  the  Plains 
and  westward.  Nearly  all  writers  urge  short 
bodies  and  low  heads 
for  the  Pacific  Coast. 
In  the  Plains  regions 
it  is  a  common  prac- 
tice to  shade  the  trunk 
by  some  artificial 
means,  but  it  is  a 
question  if  low -head- 
ing would  not  be  a 
better  practice. 

What  length  of 
trunk  constitutes  a 
high  head  or  a  low 
one,  depends  upon  the 
species  of  tree  under 
consideration.  In  ap- 
ple trees  it  may  be 
said  that  a  top  is  high 

when  the  branches  start  not  less  than  five  "feet 
above  the  ground,  and  low  when  they  start  not 
over  three  feet.  Pears,  peaches  and  plums  are  sel- 
dom started  as  high  as  five  feet.  The  question  of 
high  or  low  heads  is  largely  one  of  climate,  meth- 
ods of  tillage  to  be  employed,  and  kind  of  tree;  but 
the  writer  believes  that  in  the  East  the  commoner 
error  is  to  train  too  high  rather  than  too  low. 


A  high-headed  short-trunked 
tree. 


200 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


Wickson*,  of  California,  protests  strongly 
against  the  prevailing  fashion  of  high -topped 
trees  :  "  Low  heading  has  for  us  all  the  advan- 
tages for  which  this  practice  is  approved  in  other 


124.    Vase-form  peach  tree. 

parts  of  the  world;  viz.,  accessibility  of  fruit 
and  ease  of  pruning,  symmetry  and  solidity,  and 
consequent  decrease  of  danger  from  high  winds, 
and  greater  facility  of  approach  to  the  trunk 
with  the  horse  in  cultivation.  This  last  point 
has  been  contested  on  our  own  soil,  for  experi- 


*«  California  Fruits,"  149. 


125.     A  long  trunk  does  not  necessarily  give  a  high  top. 


202 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


ence  has  demonstrated  that  properly  trained  trees 
with  low  heads  and  obliquely -rising  branches  are 
handier  for  the  cultivator  than  high -headed  trees 
with  drooping,  horizontal  branches.  But  these 


&JS,,L%K-- 


"*    4r  *~f£  ^  \'f&'     "'   ~ 

'<>f  %-2?l  «• 

VJ§*C* 


126.    Open-centered  framework  for  apple  tree. 

general  advantages  of  low -trained  trees  are  not 
the  chief  ones  secured  in  California  in  low -head- 
ing. Hundreds  of  thousands  of  trees  have  been 
destroyed  by  the  exposure  of  a  long,  bare  trunk 
to  the  rays  of  the  afternoon  sun.  The  sun- 
burned sides  have  given  the  conditions  desired 


TWO  TYPES  OF  APPLE  HEADS 


203 


by  borers,  and  destruction  has  quickly  followed. 
Sometimes  young  trees  have  not  survived  their 
first  season  in  the  orchard,  because  of  burned 


127.    Ideal  framework  for  apple  tree. 

bark ;  or  this,  with  the  added  injury  of  borers. 
It  is  found  by  California  experience  that  the 
growth  is  more  vigorous  in  the  branches  when 
they  emerge  near  the  ground." 


204  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

The  number  of  main  or  scaffold  limbs  should 
be  decided  upon,  in  a  general  way,  before  prun- 
ing of  the  young  tree  is  seriously  begun.  Too 
many  limbs  are  more  frequent  than  too  few. 
Four  or  five  scaffold  limbs  are  usually  sufficient 
for  an  orchard  tree.  The  operator  should  also 
consider  whether  he  wants  the  trunk  to  continue 
beyond  the  branches.  Figs.  126  and  127  suggest 
the  problem.  In  Fig.  126  is  shown  a  "single 
story"  apple  tree,  and  in  Fig.  127  a  "double 
story"  tree.  It  is  impossible  to  secure  the  latter 
form  in  all  varieties  of  apples,  and  rarely  possible 
with  peaches,  but  it  is  nearly  always  easily  secured 
with  pears.  Wherever  such  form  can  be  obtained, 
the  writer  believes  that  it  (Fig.  127)  is  to  be 
preferred.  It  is  then  possible  to  secure  a  greater 
surface  for  fruit -bear  ing,  the  load  is  more  evenly 
distributed,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  splitting 
of  crotches.  This  high -centered  framework  is 
secured  by  allowing  the  leader  to  continue.  The 
leader  may  be  cut  back  when  the  tree  is  planted, 
but  a  new  one  will  start,  and  this  may  be  allowed 
to  grow.  It  will  soon  reach  the  limit  of  its 
height  and  make  a  normal  system  of  branches, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  127. 

Two  most  important  points  in  the  general  prun- 
ing of  fruit  trees  are,  (1)  to  determine  upon  the 
proper  framework  for  the  top,  and  (2)  to  there- 
after keep  the  tree  open  and  shapely,  allowing 
it  to  continue  its  natural  habit  of  growth. 


TRIMMING     YOUNG    TREES  205 

HOW   TO   TRIM    YOUNG  PLANTS 

The  general  questions  involved  in  the  pruning  of 
woody  plants  when  they  are  transplanted  are  dis- 
cussed in  "Principles  of  Fruit -Growing";  and 
that  account  is  here  reproduced,  after  the  study  of 
which  we  may  proceed  to  a  consideration  of  va- 
rious specific  applications. 

"So  far  as  the  root  is  concerned,  it  is  advisable 
to  cut  away  all  roots  which  are  broken  or  badly 
torn.  These  should  be  cut  off  just  back  of  the 
injury.  It  is  the  custom  to  cut  off  the  ends  of  all 
roots  of  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil  or  larger,  for  a 
clean,  smooth  wound  is  supposed  to  heal  quicker 
than  a  ragged  one.  These  cuts  are  made  from 
within  outwards,  so  that  the  wound  is  more  or 
less  slanting  across  the  roots,  and  so  that  it  rests 
firmly  upon  the  ground  when  the  tree  is  set. 
When  the  tree  is  planted,  all  the  roots  should  be 
straightened  out  to  nearly  or  quite  their  normal 
position.  If  it  is  found  that  one  or  two  roots 
run  off  to  an  inordinate  length,  they  may  be  cut 
back  to  correspond  somewhat  with  the  main  root 
system. 

"Perhaps  half  the  entire  root  system  of  the 
young  tree  is  left  in  the  ground  when  it  is  dug. 
It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  the  top  should  be  cut 
back  to  a  corresponding  amount.  In  fact,  the 
top  should  be  more  severely  shortened -in  than 
the  root,  because  the  root,  in  addition  to  being 
reduced,  is  also  dislodged  from  the  soil,  with 


206  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

which  it  must  establish  a  new  union  before  it  can 
resume  the  normal  activities.  Trees  which  are 
allowed  to  carry  too  much  top  when  planted  may 
fail  outright  to  grow;  or  if  they  start,  they  are 
very  likely  to  be  overtaken  by  the  droughts  of 
summer.  Even  if  they  live,  the  growth  is  gen- 
erally small  and  uncertain,  and  the  tree  may  fall 
a  prey  to  borers  or  a  victim  to  high  winds.  On 
the  other  hand,  trees  may  be  trimmed  too  severely 
when  set.  Except  possibly  in  the  case  of  peaches, 
it  is  probably  unwise  to  trim  the  trees  to  a  mere 
pole;  and  with  peaches,  it  may  be  better  to  leave 
spurs  with  at  least  one  bud  than  to  trim  to  a  whip. 
There  should  be  a  number  of  strong,  bright  buds 
left  upon  the  top,  for  these  are  the  points  where 
early  and  active  growth  begins.  These  buds  are 
upon  strong  branches.  If  they  are  removed,  the 
weaker  or  half  dormant  buds  upon  the  main  trunk 
or  low  down  in  the  crotches  must  take  up  the 
work,  and  these  start  slowly  and  often  feebly. 

"There  are  two  general  methods  of  trimming 
the  tops  of  young  trees  at  planting  time.  One 
method  cuts  back  all  the  branches  to  spurs  of 
from  one  to  three  buds;  or  sometimes,  particularly 
with  dwarf  pears  set  when  two  years  old,  the  side 
branches  may  be  cut  entirely  away,  leaving  only 
the  buds  on  the  main  stem  or  trunk.  The  tree, 
therefore,  'feathers  out7  the  first  season;  that  is,  it 
makes  many  small  shoots  along  the  main  trunk. 
The  following  fall  or  spring,  the  top  is  started  at 


TRIMMING    YOUNG    TREES 


207 


the  desired  height.  Fig.  128  shows  a  peach  tree 
as  received  from  the  nursery,  and  Fig.  129  the 
same  tree  trimmed  in  this  manner,  ready  for 


128.     Peach 
tree  as  re- 
ceived from 
the  nursery. 


129.     The  tree 
pruned. 


130. 


planting.  This  method  is  the  one  generally  best 
adapted  to  the  peach,  which  is  always  set  when  a 
year  old;  but  for  other  fruits,  unless  the  trees  are 
slender  and  without  good,  branchy  tops,  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  is  the  best  practice.  If  the  bodies 


208  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

are  thought  not  to  be  stiff  enough,  this  manner 
of  trimming  may  be  used  to  good  advantage. 
The  main  shoot  should  usually  be  headed -back  in 
this  as  in  all  styles  of  trimming,  in  order  to  make 
the  trunk  stocky. 

"The  second  method  aims  to  start  the  top  at 
the  required  height  when  the  tree  is  planted.  It 
is  adapted  only  to  strong  and  well  grown  stocks 
which  have  a  more  or  less  branching  and  forking 
top.  From  three  to  five  of  the  best  branches  are 
left,  and  these  are  headed -back  to  a  few  buds 
each.  Fig.  130  shows  a  pear  tree,  trimmed  in 
Fig.  131,  and  the  illustration  may  be  considered 
to  represent  a  good  example  of  its  class.  Many 
of  our  best  planters  prefer  the  spur  system  for 
all  trees,  and  there  are  some  who  would  trim  all 
newly  set  trees  to  a  straight  whip;  but  there  is 
much  to  be  said  for  both  methods. 

"It  may  be  said  in  general,  then,  that  peach 
trees  and  all  small  or  slender  trees,  should  be 
well  headed-back  and  spurred  (Fig.  129);  but 
that  strong,  well -branched  trees  may  have  the 
head  started  at  the  desired  height  at  the  time  of 
setting,  all  the  branches  being  well  headed -back 
(Figs.  130  and  131).  Fig.  132  shows  a  small 
plum  tree  cut  to  spurs,  and  the  roots  have  also 
been  properly  dressed.  Figs.  133  and  134  show 
second-class  apple  trees.  In  these  the  tops  are 
not  well  formed,  and  it  might  be  best  to  trim  to 
a  whip,  allowing  the  branches  A  to  become  the 


132.     Young 

plum  stock 

well  trimmed. 

N 


133.     Second-class  apple 
tree,  showing  leader 
at  A. 


134.     Second-class 
tree,  showing  leader 
at  A. 


210 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


leaders.  Such  whips  may  look  very  crooked  and 
scrawny,  but  they  will  straighten  as  they  grow. 
The  lines  in  Fig.  135  show  where  a  grape  plant 

should  be  pruned.  The 
top  should  be  cut  at  a 
and  &,  the  upper  roots 
trimmed  off  at  c  and 
d,  and  the  main  roots 
cut  in  from  e  to  /. 

"The  trees  may  be 
trimmed  before  they 
are  planted,  although 
it  is  generally  better  to 
do  it  just  after  they 
are  set,  especially  if 
'the  tree  is  trimmed 
after  the  method  of 
Fig.  131,  for  one  can 
then  better  estimate  the 
proper  height,  the  ope- 
ration is  easier  done, 
and  there  is  no  further 
danger  of  breaking  off 
plant,  showing  where  the  limbs  by  the  han- 
it  should  be  pruned.  dling  of  the  tree.  One 
foot  is  planted  firmly  at 

the  base  of  the  tree,  and  then  with  one  hand 
the  branch  to  be  removed  is  bent  upwards  and 
with  the  other  the  knife  is  applied  to  the  under 
side,  and  the  cut  is  made  neatly  and  easily  (Fig. 


TRIMMING    WHEN    SETTING 


211 


136).        Never    cut    downwards   on   a   limb,    for 
a  ragged  wound  nearly  always  follows. 

"In  fall  -set  trees  it  is 
generally  inadvisable  to 
prune  them  before  spring 
(unless  the  tops  are  so 
heavy  and  the  bodies  so 
weak  that  they  are  likely 
to  be  injured  by  wind), 
because  the  cut  surfaces 
are  likely  to  dry  out.  The 
roots  of  the  tree  are  not 
yet  sufficiently  established 
in  the  soil  to  supply  the 
added  evaporation  which 
takes  place  from  the 
wounds.  If  it  seems  to 

be  desirable  to 

trim  the    trees 

when  they  are 

Set,  they  should 

be     cut     back 

only  part  way.  They  may  be  cut 
again,  to  fresh  wood,  in  the  spring." 
(Page  96.) 

Having  the  general  subject  now  well 
in  mind,  we  may  consider  various  par- 
ticular questions  of  practice.  The  ex- 

137.     Showing  J 

where  to  cut  ^en^   to   which   cutting  -back    may    be 
the  limbs,    desirable  in   young  trees  is  shown  in 


Trimming  a  newly 


212 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


the  various  preceding  pictures.  It  is  also  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  137  and  138,  in  each  of  which 
the  marks  across  the  branches  show  where  the 
cutting  may  be  done.  Fig.  139  is  designed  to 


138.     Showing  where  to 
cut  the  limbs. 


139.     Trimming  to 
stubs. 


show  where  the  branches  may  be  severed  in  trees 
which  it  is  desired  to  head -in  very  closely.  One 
or  two  of  the  lower  branches  are  to  be  entirely 
cut  off,  and  others  cut  back  to  one  or  two 
buds,  as  shown  at  c. 

In  all  the  cases  which  we  have  so  far  considered, 


SHAPING    THE    YOUNG    TREE  213 

it  is  assumed  that  the  operator  desires  to  have  a 
distinct  trunk  to  his  tree,  and  to  start  the  top  at 
a  height  of  three  feet  or  more  from  the  ground. 
It  is  upon  this  assumption  that  nurserymen  prune 
their  trees,  making  a  single  shaft.  Persons  who 
wish  a  very  low -topped  tree,  therefore,  may  find 
difficulty  in  obtaining  it  from  the  strong -bodied 
trees  which  the  nurserymen  supply.  When  it  is 
desired  that  the  limbs  shall  start  low,  it  is  gen- 
erally best  to  buy  yearling  trees.  These  carry 
strong,  live  buds  on  the  main  shaft,  with  very  few 
or  weak  side  branches.  What  side  branches  may 
exist  are  cut  off,  and  the  tree  is  headed -back  to 
a  single  whip,  so  that  side  branches  are 
thrown  out  freely  near  the  base  of  the 
plant.  Fig.  140  illustrates  such  treat- 
ment. At  the  expiration  of  the  first 
year,  the  tree  should  look  something 
like  that  in  Fig.  141,  at  which  time 
some  of  the  branches  may  be  removed, 
leaving  only  as  many  as  it  is  desired 
shall  form  the  main  or  scaffold  limbs. 
Some  fruit-growers  prefer  to  allow  the 
leader  to  continue  in  trees  of  this  kind  ; 
but  it  is  usually  desirable  to  take  out 
the  leader  and  to  allow  the  tree  to 
form  all  its  top  upon  four  to  six  main 
branches,  which  arise  at  intervals 
along  the  short  trunk.  Two -year- old  ming  to  a" 
trees  may  also  be  trimmed  to  a  whip,  whip. 


214 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


and  if  they  are  headed -in,  or  the  young  growths 
near  the  top  are  taken  off  as  they  start,  one 
may  expect  to  secure  branches  near  the  base. 


141.     The  second  year's 
growth. 


142.     Two  years  old, 
trimmed  to  a  whip. 


Fig.  142  shows  a  two -year -old  tree  which  has 
been  trimmed  to  a  single  cane ;  a  branch  is 
starting  near  the  ground.  By  heading- in  this  tree 
when  it  is  set,  or  soon  after  growth  begins,  the 
bottom  branches  may  be  still  further  encouraged. 


SHAPING    THE    YOUNG    TREE  215 

Although  peach  trees  are  planted  when  they 
are  one  year  old,  they  have  generally  been 
trimmed  up  in  the  nursery,  so  that  the  lower 
branches  are  destroyed.  The 
tendency  for  such  trees  is  to 
throw  out  branches  near  the 
top,  and  it  is  often  impos- 
sible to  make  them  branch 
within  two  feet  of  the 
ground,  where  many  people 
desire  that  the  top  shall 
arise.  Fig.  143  is  a  tree 
which  has  thrown  out  two 
sets  of  branches,  one  near 
the  top  of  the  long  trunk, 
and  the  other  near  the  base. 
After  this  tree  has  grown 
one  season,  it  may  be  cut 
off  at  the  point  indicated 
by  the  bar ;  and  the  tree 
should  then  make  a  low  and 
vase -formed  top,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  124. 

Balmer   gives    the    follow- 
ing advice*   for  the  pruning   143-    Opportunity  for  a 
of    young     trees    in    Wash-  choice' 

ington  (and  the  same  advice  will  apply  to 
California,  or  to  any  place  in  which  low  heads 
are  desired) : 

*Pruning  Orchard  Trees,  Bull.  25,  Wash.  Exp.  Sta.     See  also  page  187. 


216  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

"Low  heading  is  the  watchword  for  planters  in 
eastern  Washington.  Commence  with  a  yearling 
tree,  switches  preferred  [as  in  Fig.  140] ,  for  in 
these  we  find  the  entire  bud  system  intact,  and 
we  can  head  our  trees  at  any  desired  height.  All 
trees  that  naturally  have  a  tall,  upright  habit  of 
growth,  such  as  apple,  pear  and  sweet  cherry, 
ought  to  be  headed  not  higher  than  twenty  to 
twenty -four  inches  from  the  ground.  And  all 
stone  fruits,  such  as  peaches,  plums,  prunes,  apri- 
cots, etc.,  ought  to  be  headed  a  little  lower,  say 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground. 
Yearling  trees,  as  usually  found  in  the  nurseries 
of  the  state,  will  range  from  two  to  four,  or 
even  seven  or  eight  feet  high.  At  planting 
time,  whether  it  be  spring  or  fall,  these  ought 
to  be  headed -down  to  the  proper  height.  I  am 
aware  that  it  seems  like  a  great  sacrifice  to  take 
a  strong  young  tree  and  cut  away  three-fourths 
of  its  top,  but  it  must  be  done,  and  done  at 
once;  for  if  you  allow  one  year  to  pass  without 
attention  to  this  topping,  your  chances  to  secure 
a  wrell-formed,  low-headed  tree  are  lost.  For 
while  you  may  at  any  time  cut  a  tree  back  to 
the  desired  height,  yet,  to  cut  back  into  wood 
that  ^is  two  or  three  years  old  never  gives  the 
same  results  as  does  attention  to  this  matter  at 
the  proper  time. 

"It  will  be  seen  that  the  treatment  of  the  tree 
the  first  season  is  of  a  very  simple  nature.  Your 


STARTING    THE    HEAD    LOW  217 

young  orchard  contains  a  lot  of  stubs  sticking 
out  of  the  ground  to  a  height  not  exceeding 
two  feet.  During  the  first  season's  growth  these 
stubs  will  develop  numerous  branches,  almost 
every  bud  will  start,  and  what  was  lately  a  stub 
will  become  a  little  forest  of  shoots.  [See  Fig. 
141] .  *  *  *  Allow  every  limb  and  every  leaf 
to  develop  to  its  fullest  extent.  Remember  that 
the  leaves  are  to  a  tree  what  our  lungs  and 
blood  are  to  us, — its  very  life.  And  every  leaf 
you  deprive  the  tree  of  in  summer  is  robbing 
it  of  its  tissue-forming  organs.  Without  leaf 
action  there  can  be  no  root  action ;  and  the 
fullest  development  in  root  and  branch  can  only 
be  secured  by  religiously  preserving  the  foliage. 

"We  will  proceed  to  prune  our  tree  for  the 
second  time.  The  switch  that  you  planted  and 
headed  back  last  year  has  developed  a  number 
of  shoots,  may  be  five  or  six,  but  more  often  fif- 
teen or  twenty.  From  these  select  from  three  to 
five  of  the  strongest,  best  ripened  limbs  (cutting 
out  all  the  rest),  at  the  same  time  exercising 
care  to  have  them  evenly  fill  the  space  around 
and  above  the  tree.  Observe  carefully  that  no 
two  limbs  emerge  from  the  trunk  opposite  each 
other,  forming  what  is  known  as  a  crotch.  A 
crotch  in  an  old  tree  is  always  an  evil,  causing 
a  weak  spot,  where  the  tree  will  be  likely  to- 
break  down  or  split  during  a  heavy  fruit  crop. 
The  remedy  is  in  your  own  hands ;  when  you 


m  f  OF    i 

ftJNlVERSITY   \ 
V*c= 


218 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


prune  your  two-year-old  tree,  cut  out  every  limb 
that  forms  a  crotch  with  its  neighbor. 

"The  tree  in  Fig.  144  will  convey  the  idea  of 
what  a  two-year-old  tree  ought  to  be  like  after 
having  received  its  second  pruning.  Notice  the 
arrangement  of  the  limbs.  All  crotches  have 
been  avoided;  from  the  ground  to  the  lowest 
branches  is  twelve  inches,  and  the  entire  height  of 
the  tree  thirty  inches.  Contrast  this  little  stocky 
tree  with  the  weaklings  of  the  same 
age  one  commonly  meets  in  orchards 
to-day,  with  thin,  misshapen  trunk 
three  or  four  feet  high,  surmounted 
by  two  or  three  long  spindling 
branches,  the  whole  innocent  of 
knife  and  shears.  No  wonder  our 
trees  break  down  ;  they  have  not 
strength  to  carry  a  heavy  crop  of 
fruit! 

"After  having  selected  the  desired 
number  of  limbs  intended  to  form 
the  frame  of  the  tree,  shorten  these 
back  to  within  a  foot  of  the  trunk, 
always  cutting  to  a  plump  promi- 
nent bud.  The  tree  may  be  spread, 
or  it  may  be  contracted,  by  cutting 
to  a  bud  which  points  outward,  for 
the  former,  and  to  a  bud  that  inclines  inward 
for  the  latter.  You  need  not  hope  to  alter  the 
character  of  the  tree  by  this  cutting  to  a  bud, 


4i-   Pruned 
ie 


STARTING    THE    HEAD    LOW  219 

yet  a  little  may  be  done  to  improve  its  shape. 
As  a  rule  the  weaker  the  growth  the  harder  it 
ought  to  be  cut  back ;  this  will  encourage  an  in- 
creased wood  growth  the  following  summer. 
Trees  treated  in  this  way  make  a  growth  that  is 
often  very  perplexing  to  the  amateur ;  the  result 
of  this  shortening -in  of  all  the  limbs  will  be  an 
increased  number  of  shoots  to  treat  the  follow- 
ing season.  *  *  * 

"The  third  pruning  is  conducted  on  the  same 
lines  as  the  second,  with  this  difference:  Select 
the  limbs  you  wish  to  continue  the  upward 
growth  of  the  tree ;  these  will  usually  be  not 
more  than  two  on  each  of  those  left  last  year, 
observing  the  same  care  not  to  leave  crotches, 
and  shortening -in  the  growth  made  in  that  sea- 
son; but  instead  of  taking  off  all  of  the  inside 
shoots  clean  to  the  branch,  they  are  left  an  inch 
or  two  long,  and  in  the  course  of  a  season  or 
two  all  these  stubs  that  you  leave  will  be  con- 
verted into  fruit- spurs.  I  would  practice  pruning 
if  for  no  other  reason  than  to  develop  every  bud 
on  all  the  limbs,  and  would  treat  these  buds  in 
such  a  manner  that  all  would  eventually  become 
fruit-spurs.  *  *  *  The  third  season's  pruning, 
then,  differs  from  the  first  and  second  in  leaving 
a  part  of  all  the  growth,  instead  of  taking  it  off 
clean,  as  in  the  case  of  very  young  trees.  I  object 
to  leaving  spurs  before  the  third  season,  for  the 
reason  that  by  so  doing  we  encourage  a  fruit- 


220  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

ing  condition  in  our  trees  at  too  early  an  age, 
and  this  is  the  very  end  we  are  trying  to  defeat. 

"The  necessary  pruning  during  the  following 
two  or  three  years  does  not  materially  differ  from 
that  described  for  the  third  year.  Let  the  aim 
be  a  symmetrical  low,  somewhat  round-headed 
tree— the  top  ought  not  to  be  too  full  of  wood— 
and  not  too  thin!  Do  not  expect  that  every  tree 
can  be  pruned  so  as  to  assume  an  ideal  form, 
for  in  this  you  will  be  disappointed.  No  two 
trees  have  exactly  the  same  habit  of  growth. 
Some  are  tall  and  close,  others  spreading  and 
willowy.  All  may  be  vastly  improved  by  an  in- 
telligent use  of  the  knife  during  the  early  years 
of  the  tree's  growth.  At  the  age  of  four  or  five 
years  we  find  cherry,  plum,  and  even  apple  and 
pear,  rapidly  developing  fruit  buds.  And  as 
this  condition  becomes  evident,  the  use  of  the 
knife  had  better  be  gradually  discontinued.  All 
the  pruning  necessary  on  bearing  trees  is  to  en- 
courage a  proper  development  of  the  leading 
shoots,  and  if  these  are  making  a  growth  of  over 
twenty -four  inches  annually,  they  ought  to  be 
shortened -in  to  encourage  a  stocky  habit  of  tree. 
All  weak  shoots  appearing  lower  down  on  the 
tree  should  be  cut  back  to  within  an  inch  or  two 
of  the  limbs,  thereby  forming  a  full  and  correct 
system  of  fruit -spurs  on  every  part  of  the  tree." 

In  contrast  to  this  instruction  for  the  low 
heading  of  trees,  I  insert  directions  given  by  T. 


SHAPING    THE    YOUNG    TREE  221 

G.  Yeomans  &  Sons,  of  New  York,  most  success- 
ful fruit-growers,  but  who  start  the  limbs  of 
apple  trees  not  less  than  six  feet  from  the  ground: 
"The  trees  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  all 
broken  or  bruised  roots  carefully  pruned;  and 
with  apple,  standard  pear  and  peach  trees  not 
over  seven  feet  high,  every  side  branch  should 
be  cut  away,  leaving  the  tree  a  straight  stem. 
The  reasons  for  this  are:  (1)  this  pruning  will 
reduce  the  top  to  correspond  with  the  diminished 
capacity  of  the  roots,  so  ."that  they  will  furnish  a 
full  supply  of  sap,  and  cause  it  to  stand  and  grow 
vigorously;  (2)  it  will  stand  more  upright,  and 
not  be  so  liable  to  be  swayed  about  by  the  winds, 
and  allows  one  to  dispense  with  a  stake,  which 
many  recommend  for  holding  the  tree  in  an  up- 
right position,  but  which  commonly  injures,  if  it 
does  not  destroy,  the  tree;  (3)  the  buds  on  the 
last  year's  growth  of  the  upright  stem  will  form 
all  needed  branches,  of  better  form  and  more 
vigorous  growth  than  the  old  ones  would  if  left 
on,  and  will  be  at  the  necessary  height  from  the 
ground,  as  cannot  be  the  case  where  they  are 
spurred." 

We  have  already  discussed  the  importance  of 
pruning  near  a  bud  (Figs.  82  and  83),  because 
the  part  which  projects  beyond  the  bud  dies  and 
remains  a  dangerous  part.  We  have  also  found 
that  trees  which  are  planted  in  the  fall  should  not 
be  cut  back  severely,  because  the  roots,  not  hav- 


222  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

ing  a  hold  upon  the  soil,  cannot  supply  the  mois- 
ture which  is  lost  from  the  wound.  The  stubs 
are,  therefore,  cut  back  to  a  fresh  bud  in  the 
spring,  just  before  growth  begins,  leaving  a  stub 
above  the  bud  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  length.  Figs.  145  and  146  illustrate  the 


145.     Shaping  the  top.  146.     Shaping  the  top. 

proper  pruning  of  trees  with  reference  to  the 
buds.  It  is  considered  by  some  pruners  to  be 
important  to  cut  to  a  bud  which  stands  upon  the 
outside  of  the  twig,  thereby  causing  the  top  to 
spread.  It  is  usually  the  top  bud  which  grows, 
providing  the  stub  is  not  dried  back  and  the  bud 
is  strong  and  healthy.  If  this  top  bud  is  on  the 
inside  of  the  limb,  it  does  not  tend  to  spread  so 
far  from  the  perpendicular  as  one  which  is  on  the 


SHAPING    THE    YOUNG    TREE 


223 


outside.  Figs.  146  and  147  are  made  from  the 
same  plant,  the  latter  illustration  being  taken  in 
May.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  top  buds  are  the 
ones  which  have  grown,  and  that 
the  tendency  of  the  upper  growth 
at  3  is  more  nearly  perpendicular 
than  that  at  1.  As  growth  pro- 
gresses, however,  the  shoot  1  will 
turn  upwards  and  will  very  nearly 
approach  the  perpendicular.  It  is 
not  often  worth  the  while  to  pay 
much  attention  to  the  location  of 
the  upper  bud,  with  re- 
spect to  the  axis  of  the 
shoot,  but  it  is  certainly 
important  to  trim  back 
to  a  strong, healthy  bud. 
The  illustrations  145 
and  146  show  the  proper  method 
of  leaving  the  main  scaffold 
branches.  They  arise  alternately 
from  the  main  stem,  and  there- 
fore do  not  form  crotches,  and 
there  is  little  danger  that  such 
injuries  will  occur  as  that  shown 
in  Fig.  105.  If  it  is  desired  that 
the  leader  shall  continue  so  as  to 
form  a  two-storied  tree,  like  that 
in  Fig,  127,  the  shoot  from  the 
uppermost  bud  may  be  allowed  to 


147.       How    the 
growth  starts. 


224 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


grow  for  this  purpose.  That  is,  even  though 
the  leader  is  cut  off,  the  plant  throws  out  a 
new  one,  as  we  have  already  seen  (Section  4, 
Chapter  IV.).: 

It  is  often  impossible  to   start  the  top   in   the 
form   in  which   we    desire,   and    our    ideals   may 


148.    The  scaffold  limbs. 

change  from  year  to  year,  so  that  we  may  be 
called  upon  to  modify  the  form  which  we  at  first 
projected.  It  will  also  be  necessary  to  thin  the 
top  considerably,  else  too  many  scaffold  limbs 
will  arise.  Fig.  148  shows  a  Bartlett  pear  tree 
at  the  end  of  its  second  year  in  the  orchard.  At 
the  left,  the  unpruned  tree  is  shown;  and  at  the 
right,  all  the  limbs  have  been  removed  except 
three,  which  it  is  desired  shall  form  the  frame- 
work of  the  tree.  When  set,  this  tree  was  cut 


SHAPING    THE    YOUNG    TREE 


225 


back  to  three  limbs,  as  may  be  determined  by  the 
method  of  branching  of  the  specimen  upon  the 
left;  and  from  the  end  of  each  of  these  stubs  two 
or  three  branches  arose  during  the  next  season. 
Now  that  the  tree  has  established  itself,  and  it  is 
no  longer  necessary  to  head -in  the  young  growths, 
this  forking  branching  will  not  occur,  and  the 

\ 


IRT1 

I/I        -H^,         •  ^  -kj 

149.     Raising  the  top. 


tree  will  now  need  comparatively  little  attention 
in  pruning,  except,  of  course,  that  all  the  super- 
fluous growth  shall  be  removed  each  year.  Fig. 
149  shows  the  treatment  of  a  Bartlett  pear  which 
the  owner  had  started  too  low.  He  has  now  taken 
off  the  lower  circles  of  limbs  and  has  elevated  the 
top  by  about  a  foot,  leaving  two  or  three  stubs 
for  the  foundation  of  his  growth  for  the  year  to 
come. 

There  is  more  difficulty  in  starting  the  tops  of 


226 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


peach  trees  than  of  most  other  fruits,  from  the 
fact,  as  has  been  said,  that  the  trees  are  usually 
pruned  too  high  in  the  nursery.  The  trees  are 
also  likely  to  die  back  from  the  top,  especially  if 
they  have  been  set  in  the  fall;  and  since  they 
have  few  buds  on  their  bodies,  they  may  throw 
out  adventitious  shoots  near  the  point  of  union 
of  the  bud  with  the  stock.  Fig.  150  shows  a 
typical  case  of  this  kind,  in  which  the  trunk 
•A  has  died  back  nearly  to  the  ground.  The 
two  lowermost  branches  arise  from  the  stock  and 

are,  therefore,  to  be 
sacrificed;  but  the  first 
strong  shoot  which 
comes  from  the  bud  is 
allowed  to  grow,  and 
all  the  rest  is  cut  away, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  151. 
The  grower  now  has 
the  plant  under  his  con- 
trol, and  can  start  the 
top  where  he  may 
choose.  Peach  trees 
also  have  a  tendency 
to  throw  out  strong 
growths  from  one  side 

and  to  be  blind  or  dormant  on  the  other  side. 
Such  one-sided  growth  from  the  top  of  a  peach 
trunk  is  shown  in  Fig.  152.  In  this  figure, 
the  long  trunk  has  been  cut  back  to  the 


150.     A    common 

fault  with  peach 

trees. 


151.    How  to 

manage 

it. 


AWKWARD    PEACH    TREES 


227 


branches,  and  these  branches  should  now  be 
headed -in  to  five  or  six  buds.  Strong  shoots, 
with  an  upward  ;, 

tendency,    will   now  \ 

start  from  the  base 
of  these  branches, 
and  at  the  end 
of  the  second  year, 
a  tree  something 
like  that  in  Fig. 
153  may  be  se- 
cured. If  it  is  de- 
sired to  start  the 
limbs  of  a  peach  tree 

Very  low,  to  make    a  152.     Another  trouble 
low    head,     the     tree      with  young  peach 

should  be  cut   to  a  trees' 

stub   a   foot  or  two   long  when  it  is   planted. 


153.     How  to 

correct 

it. 


ROOT-PRUNING 

In  order  to  understand  the  vexed  question  of 
root -pruning,  it  is  necessary  that  the  subject  be 
analyzed.  We  prune  the  roots 

I.  Of  established  plants— 

1.  To     keep    the     growth     within     bounds, 

particularly  when  it  is  desired  that  the 
plant  shall  be  dwarf  ; 

2.  To   concentrate  or   contract   the   foraging 

of   the  roots; 

3.  To  make  plants  fruitful. 


228  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

II.  Of  plants  which  are  being   transplanted. 

We  have  already  found  (Section  2,  Chap.  IV.) 
that  root -pruning  checks  growth:  it  cuts  off  a 
part  of  the  food  supply.  Checking  growth  in- 
duces fruitfulness  (Section  11,  Chap.  IV.).  The 
same  principles  of  physiology  govern  the  practice 
of  root -pruning  as  that  of  top -pruning.  The 
wounds  heal  by  the  formation  of  a  callus,  germs 
of  decay  enter  exposed  wounds,  new  or  adventi- 
tious roots  start  as  the  result  of  heavy  pruning, 
the  severed  leader  (or  tap-root)  tends  to  renew 
itself  (see  Fig.  115),  and  the  general  remarks 
respecting  seasons  for  pruning  apply  to  roots  with 
nearly  the  same  force  as  to  tops.  Since  roots 
have  no  buds,  the  new  branches  do  not  arise  in  as 
definite  order  as  they  do  on  tops,  but  this  is  a  mat- 
ter of  no  consequence,  for  the  shape  of  the  root 
system  is  of  no  practical  importance.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  roots  is  important,  however, — whether 
they  run  horizontally  and  near  the  surface,  or 
perpendicularly.  The  direction  of  the  roots,  how- 
ever, is  not  determined  primarily  by  methods  of 
pruning,  but  by  the  nature  of  the  plant,  by  the 
soil,  and  the  position  of  moisture  and  food. 

The  root -pruning  of  established  plants  is  prac- 
ticable only  on  a  small  scale.  It  is  practiced  in 
amateur  plantations,  or  in  those  cases  in  which 
it  is  desired  to  keep  plants  within  definite  bounds 
or  shapes.  It  is  essentially  a  garden  idea.  It  is 
practiced  in  European  enclosures,  in  the  growing 


ROOT -PRUNING  229 

of  trees  to  pyramids,  cordons,  011  espaliers,  and 
the  like  (see  Chapter  VI.).  By  cutting  the  roots, 
they  are  kept  within  a  prescribed  area,  and  do  not 
interfere  with  other  plants.  The  tops  of  the  plants 
are  thereby  checked  of  exuberant  growth,  and  are 
more  manageable  on  walls  and  trellises.  In 
Europe,  these  small  bearing  trees  are  often  taken 
up  and  replanted,  in  order  to  keep  them  within 
bounds.  In  the  well  tilled  gardens,  and  in  cool 
and  moist  climates,  it  is  often  thought  to  be  de- 
sirable to  keep  the  roots  near  the  surface  ;  but  in 
American  orchard  conditions  it  is  desirable  that 
the  roots  strike  deep. 

In  the  large -area  or  field  conditions  under 
which  American  fruits  are  grown,  root -pruning 
is  rarely  necessary  or  even  useful.  Under  such 
conditions,  the  plant  takes  its  natural  habit  and 
reaches  its  normal  stature,  and  fruit -bearing  comes 
naturally  with  the  maturity  of  the  plant ;  or,  if 
fruit -bearing  does  not  come,,  the  fundamental 
treatment  lies  in  correcting  faults  of  tillage,  soil, 
varieties,  or  other  cardinal  matters.  In  our 
country,  root -pruning  may  be  associated  with 
ringing  or  girdling,  and  such  other  special  opera- 
tions which  may  be  used  experimentally  now  and 
then,  when  other  means  have  failed.  It  is  of 
special  rather  than  of  general  importance. 

The  European  books  and  periodicals  contain 
many  detailed  instructions  for  root -pruning,  and 
to  these  the  reader  should  go  if  he  desires  ex- 


230  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

plicit  information  on  practices.  A  single  typical 
quotation  is  here  inserted  to  show  the  general 
nature  of  the  advice. 

"Root-pruning  of  pyramidal  pear  trees  on  quince  stocks.* 
— Before  entering  on  the  subject  of  root -pruning  of  pear 
trees  on  quince  stocks,  I  must  premise  that  handsome  and 
fertile  pyramids,  more  particularly  of  some  free -bearing 
varieties,  may  be  reared  without  this  annual  or  biennial 
operation.  If  the  annual  shoots  of  the  tree  are  not  more 
than  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  no  root -pruning  need  be 
done.  I  have  a  large  plantation  of  pear  trees  on  the 
quince  stock,  which  have  been  made  very  handsome  and 
fertile  pyramids,  yet  they  have  not  been  root-pruned, 
neither  do  I  intend  to  root -prune  them.  But  I  wish  to 
impress  upon  my  readers  that  my  principal  object  is  to 
make  trees  fit  for  small  gardens,  and  to  instruct  those 
who  are  not  blessed  with  a  large  garden  how  to  keep  the 
trees  perfectly  under  control  :  and  this  can  best  be  done 
by  annual,  or  at  least  biennial  attention  to  their  roots  ; 
for  if  a  tree  be  suffered  to  grow  three  or  more  years,  and 
then  be  root-pruned,  it  will  receive  a  check  if  the  spring 
be  dry,  and  the  crop  of  fruit  for  one  season  will  be  jeop- 
ardized. Therefore,  those  who  are  disinclined  to  the 
annual  operation,  and  yet  wish  to  confine  the  growth  of 
their  trees  within  limited  bounds  by  root -pruning,  say 
once  in  two  years,  should  only  operate  upon  half  of  their 
trees  one  season  ;  they  will  thus  have  the  remaining  half 
in  an  unchecked  bearing  state  ;  and  those  who  have  ample 
room  and  space  may  pinch  their  pyramids  in  summer,  and 
suffer  them  to  grow  to  a  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet 
without  pruning  their  roots.  I  have  seen  avenues  of  such 
trees  in  Belgium,  really  quite  imposing.  In  rich  soils, 
where  the  trees  grow  so  freely  as  to  make  shoots  eighteen 


*Thomas  Rivers,  "The  Miniature  Fruit  Garden." 


ROOT  -  PRUNING  231 

inches  in  length  in  one  season,  they  may  be  root-pruned 
annually  with  great  advantage. 

"The  following  summary  will  perhaps  convey  my  ideas 
respecting  the  management  of  pyramids  and  bushes  when 
cultivated  as  garden  trees.  In  small  gardens  with  rich 
soils,  either  root-prune  or  remove  all  the  trees  annually 
early  in  November.  In  larger  gardens,  perform  the  same 
operation  biennially  at  the  same  season.  For  very  large 
gardens  with  a  dry,  good  subsoil,  in  which  all  kinds  of 
fruit  trees  grow  without  any  tendency  to  canker,  and  when 
large  trees  are  desired,  neither  remove  nor  root-prune, 
but  pinch  the  shoots  in  summer,  thin  them  in  winter  when 
they  become  crowded,  and  thus  make  your  trees  symmet- 
rical and  fruitful. 

"Pyramidal  pear  trees  on  the  quince  stock,  where  the 
fruit  garden  is  small,  the  soil  rich,  and  when  the  real 
gardening  artist  feels  pleasure  in  keeping  them  in  a 
healthy  and  fruitful  state  by  perfect  control  over  the 
roots,  should  be  annually  operated  upon  as  follows  :  A 
trench  should  be  dug  around  the  tree,  about  eighteen 
inches  from  its  stem,  every  autumn,  just  after  the  fruit  is 
gathered  if  the  soil  be  sufficiently  moist,— if  not,  it  will 
be  better  to  wait  till  the  usual  autumnal  rains  have 
fallen  ;  the  roots  should  then  be  carefully  examined,  and 
those  inclined  to  be  of  perpendicular  growth  cut  with  the 
spade,  which  must  be  introduced  quite  under  the  tree  to 
meet  on  all  sides,  so  that  no  root  can  possibly  escape 
amputation.  All  the  horizontal  roots  should  be  shortened 
with  a  knife  to  within  a  circle  of  eighteen  inches  from 
the  stem,  and  all  brought  as  near  to  the  surface  as  possi- 
ble, filling  in  the  trench  with  compost  for  the  roots  to 
rest  on.  The  trench  may  then  be  filled  with  the  compost 
(well -rotted  dung  and  the  mold  from  an  old  hotbed, 
equal  parts,  will  answer  exceedingly  well);  the  surface 
should  then  be  covered  with  some  half-rotted  dung  and 
the  roots  left  till  the  following  autumn  brings  its  annual 


232  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

care.  It  may  be  found  that,  after  a  few  years  of  root- 
pruning,  the  circumferential  mass  of  fibers  will  have  be- 
come too  much  crowded  with  small  roots  ;  in  such  cases, 
thin  out  some  of  the  roots,  shortening  them  at  nine  inches 
or  one  foot  from  the  stem.  This  will  cause  them  to  give 
out  fibers,  so  that  the  entire  circle  of  three  feet  or  more 
around  the  tree  will  be  full  of  fibrous  roots  near  the  surface, 
waiting  with  open  mouths  for  the  nourishment  annually 
given  to  them  by  surface  dressings  and  liquid  manure. 

"Thus  far  for  the  gardener  who  does  not  mind  extra 
trouble,— who,  in  short,  feels  real  pleasure  in  every  opera- 
tion that  tends  to  make  his  trees  perfect  in  fruitfulness  and 
symmetry.  But  it  is  not  every  amateur  gardener  that  can 
do  this,  nor  is  it  always  required  in  the  south  of  England, 
except  for  small  gardens  and  in  rich,  moist  soils,  in  which 
pear  trees  are  inclined  to  grow  too  vigorously.  But  with 
our  too  often  cool,  moist  summers  in  the  northern  counties, 
annual  root-pruning  is  quite  necessary  to  make  the  trees 
produce  well-ripened  wood.  In  other  cases,  as  I  have  be- 
fore observed,  shortening  the  shoots  in  summer,  taking  care 
to  produce  a  handsome  pyramidal  form,  and  if  they  are 
inclined  to  grow  vigorously,  biennial  root-pruning,  will  be 
quite  sufficient." 

ROOT -PRUNING      WHEN      TRANSPLANTING. — Root- 

pruning  results  from  the  removal  of  plants.  That 
is,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  dig  up  plants  of 
any  size— as  shrubs  or  trees — without  cutting  some 
of  the  roots.  The  severed  roots,  when  as  large 
as  a  lead  pencil,  should  be  cut  back  to  live,  un- 
injured wood,  and  the  wound  should  be  clean-cut. 
This  is  to  ensure  rapid  healing.  How  short  the 
roots  shall  be  cut  is  a  problem  to  be  settled  for 
each  case,  in  the  same  way  as  the  similar  problem 


DO  ROOTS  STRIKE  FROM  THE  CALLUS  ?  233 

respecting  the  proper  length  to  leave  the  branches. 
In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  main  roots  of 


154.    Roots  do  not  start  from  the  callus. 

trees   two   to  four   years  old   may  be   left  six  to 
eight  inches  long. 

There  is  much  discussion  as  to  where  the  new 
roots  arise  in  transplanted  trees.  It  should  first 
be  said  that  the  roots  do  not  necessarily  arise 
from  the  callus,*  although  this  is  the  almost  uni- 

*See  also,  L.  C.  Corbett,  9th  Ann.  Rep.  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.,  196. 


234  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

versal  notion.  In  fact,  they  very  rarely,  if  ever, 
arise  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  callus  tissue.  From 
an  apple  tree  two  years  old,  one  side  of  the  root 
was  shaved.  The  tree  was  planted,  and  after 
growing  two  years,  was  taken  up  and  photo- 
graphed (Fig.  154).  The  callus  had  formed  on 
both  sides  of  the  wound,  but  no  roots  had  started 
from  it. 

The  new  roots  usually  arise  from  firm,  strong 
roots  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil  or  larger;  but  they 
may  also  arise  from  the  hair -like  roots  which  are 
on  the  tree  when  it  is  transplanted,  although  the 
common  opinion  is  to  the  contrary.  The  place 
from  which  the  new  roots  arise  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  habit  of  the  individual  plant.  In 
some  cases,  all  the  roots  will  spring  from  the  main 
shaft  or  trunk,  and  in  others  they  seem  to  arise 
almost  indiscriminately  from  the  trunk,  large 
roots  and  very  fine  roots.  The  figures,  carefully 
drawn,  from  actual  examples  of  apple  trees,  illus- 
trate the  point.  The  root  shown  in  Fig.  155  was 
trimmed  of  all  its  fine  roots  when  transplanted. 
It  is  seen  that  the  new  roots  start  from  various 
parts  of  the  root  system.  The  root  in  Fig.  156 
had  some  small,  but  not  very  fine,  roots  left.  The 
new  roots  are  starting  from  near  the  ends  of  these 
roots,  large  and  small  alike.  (See  also  Fig.  161.) 
In  none  of  these  cases  do  the  roots  start  from  the 
calluses.  The  common  notion  that  roots  will  start 
directly  downward  if  the  old  roots  are  cut  diago- 


DO  ROOTS  FORM  PROM  THE  CALLUS?   235 

nally  on  the  under  side,  so  that  the  callus  looks 
downwards,  is  a  fallacy.  The  direction  of  the 
roots,  as  already  said  (page  228),  is  determined 


155.    Where  the  new 
roots    start. 


156.    Where  the  new 
roots  start. 


by  the   nature  of   the    plant,   the   texture   of   the 
soil,  and   by  the   water   and    food   supply.      The 
position  of   the  callus   does  not   influence   it. 
As  a  matter  of    practice,   it   is  generally  inad- 


236  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

visable  to  exercise  much  care  to  save  the  very  fine 
roots  when  transplanting  shrubs  and  trees,  for 
such  roots  are  apt  to  be  killed  by  short  exposure 
to  the  weather,  and  to  be  injured  in  shipping  and 
transplanting ;  but  the  common  notion  that  they 
are  of  no  use  in  a  transplanted  tree,  and  that 
new  roots  do  not  arise  from  them,  is  false. 

Within  the  past  few  years  a  so-called  system 
of  close  root -pruning  has  been  advocated  in  this 
country.  It  is  the  result  of  the  experiments  and 
writings  of  H.  M.  Stringfellow,  of  Texas,  and 
has  come  to  be  known  as  the  Stringfellow  or 
stub -root  system.  It  cuts  off  practically  all  the 
roots,  leaving  only  stubs  an  inch  or  two  long ; 
and  it  cuts  back  the  tops  to  a  mere  stump  twelve 
to  eighteen  inches  high.  This  method  of  treat- 
ing trees  at  transplanting  time  has  been  the 
subject  of  writings  which  are  distinguished  more 
for  their  controversial  spirit  and  their  evident 
attempt  to  uphold  an  hypothesis  than  for  any 
clear  analysis  of  the  subject.  The  best  exposi- 
tion of  the  subject  is  contained  in  Stringfellow's 
"New  Horticulture",  published  in  1896.* 

There    seem   to    be   three    leading    conceptions 


*Some  of  the  current  writings  may  be  found  in  Texas  Farm  and 
Ranch,  1895,  reprinted  in  Galveston  Tribune,  Dec.  20,  1895 ;  Fruit 
Growers'  Journal,  Feb.  15,  1894,  Feb.  1  and  May  1,  1896  ;  California 
Fruit  Grower,  May  30,  1896.  Excellent  contributions  in  support  of  the 
method,  by  T.  L.  Brunk,  may  be  found  in  American  Farmer,  July  15, 
1892,  and  Fruit-Growers'  Journal,  Jan.  15,  1896.  Report  of  experiments 
is  made  in  Bull.  39,  Texas  Exp.  Sta  ,  by  R.  H.  Price. 


THE    STRINGFELLOW    THEORY  237 

upon  which  the  superiority  of  this  stub -root  sys- 
tem is  assumed  to  rest :  Seedling  non- trans- 
planted trees  are  longer -lived,  hardier  and 
healthier  than  the  trees  of  orchards ;  this  su- 
periority is  largely  due  to  the  presence  of  a  tap- 
root system  ;  the  nearer  the  transplanted  tree  is 
reduced  to  the  form  of  a  young  seedling  or  cut- 
ting, the  greater  is  its  tendency  to  develop  a 
tap-root  system.  All  these  categories  are  mere 
assumptions.  The  old  seedling  trees  at  which 
we  wonder  are  a  few  out  of  many.  For  every 
one  that  has  reached  a  hale  old  age,  hundreds 
have  probably  perished;  and  since  the  dead  are 
not  in  evidence,  we  enlarge  the  exception  into 
the  rule.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  orchards  of 
to-day,  at  least  in  the  East,  are  more  uniformly 
healthy  and  productive  than  the  seedling  or- 
chards of  other  days.  In  our  time,  every 
break  in  the  orchard  is  missed  and  commented 
upon  ;  in  those  times,  the  breaks  were  of  small 
consequence.* 

In  the  second   place,  a  tap-root  is   not  an  in- 


*A  fuller  discussion  of  this  question  may  be  read  in  Essay  XX., 
"Survival  of  the  Unlike".  Mr.  Stringfellow  cites  such  seedlings  as  the 
original  tree  of  Sudduth  pear  and  Mammoth  Black  Twig  apple.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  know  what  has  become  of  all  the  other  seed- 
ling pears  and  apples  which  presumably  started  at  about  the  same  time. 
Such  trees  are  isolated  facts,  not  averages;  they  do  not  necessarily 
show  laws  or  tendencies.  It  is  easy  to  find  such  patriarchs  among 
grafted  and  transplanted  trees.  For  example,  the  so-called  original 
Tompkins  County  King  apple  is  a  grafted  and  transplanted  tree,  and 
it  still  bears  well,  although  about  seventy  years  old,  and  outliving 
most  of  its  progeny. 


238  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

variable  attribute  of  seedlings,  any  more  than 
a  distinct  leader  is  always  an  attribute  of  their 
tops.  Some  plants  have  tap-roots  and  some  do 
not.  They  vary  in  this  regard,  as  they  do  in 
stature,  form,  kind  of  fruit,  or  habit  of  growth. 
When  seedlings  first  start,  they  usually  have  a 
tap-root,  but  this  tap-root  tends  to  vanish  as  the 
root  system  enlarges  and  becomes  diffuse,  in  the 
same  way  that  the  leader  in  the  top  may  be  lost. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  a  tree  necessarily 
thrives  better  if  it  has  a  tap-root  (see  page  151). 

In  the  third  place,  a  tap-root  does  not  form 
merely  because  the  roots  are  cut  long  or  short, 
or  in  one  way  or  another.  If  it  is  the  habit 
of  a  plant  to  develop  a  tap-root,  it  will  generally 
do  so,  even  after  its  original  tap  is  cut  (Fig. 
115),  unless  prevented  by  some  peculiarity  of  soil. 
It  will  generally  throw  down  two  or  even  several 
tap-roots  instead  of  one.  It  must  follow,  how- 
ever, that  in  short -pruned  roots,  these  new 
leaders  will  be  very  close  together  and  approxi- 
mately under  the  main  shaft  of  the  tree,  and 
therefore  appear  to  constitute  a  truer  tap-root 
system  than  when  they  arise  at  some  distance  to 
the  side  of  the  main  shaft ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  centermost  ones  will  tend  to  be  the 
stronger. 

The  gist  of  the  whole  matter,  so  far  as  the 
theory  is  concerned,  is  that  individual  instances 
and  the  results  of  certain  experiments  have  been 


STUB -ROOT    PRUNING 


239 


enlarged  into  an  hypothesis  which  has  been  ap- 
plied to  all  plants.  The  stub-root  system  is 
really  not  a  system  at  all.  It  is  not  founded 
on  a  body  of  principles.  It  is  a  matter  of 
practice,  which  will  sometimes  be  useful  and 


157.     Stringfellow's  model. 


158.     The  wrong  ideal. 


sometimes  not.  Its  success  depends  on  local  and 
incidental  conditions.  It  would  be  as  true  to  say 
that  because  many  people  find  the  pyramidal 
training  of  dwarf  pears  to  be  useful,  therefore 
it  is  necessarily  best  everywhere  and  for  all 
species  and  varieties. 

The  accompanying  pictures,  from  Stringfellow  s 
"New  Horticulture,"  show  the  method  of  this 
stub -root  pruning.  Fig.  157  is  the  correct  form, 
— "cut  back  just  below  the  collar,  and  just  under 
the  first  good  side  roots."  We  should  "not  leave 
any  length  of  the  main  or  tap-root,  with  side 


240 


SOME     SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


roots  cut  back,"*  as  in  Fig.  158.  It  is  impossible 
to  cut  Fig.  158  to  the  form  of  Fig.  157,  because 
the  root  did  not  grow  in  the  same  way. 
This  is  true  of  most  trees,  especially  if 
budded  stock ;  they  cannot  be  cut  ac- 
cording to  directions.  Peach  trees  lend 
themselves  most  readily  to  this  form ; 
also  cutting -grown  pear  trees  (such  as 
are  grown  in  the  South).  The  theory 
is  that  the  new  roots  arise  from  the 
under  surfaces  of  roots  which  are  cut 
as  in  Fig.  157,  and  then  grow  directly 
downwards.  Fig.  159  is  Brunk's  model 
of  a  peach  tree  properly  trimmed,  show- 
ing both  root  and  top,  the  whole  being 
only  fifteen  inches  long.  -Fig.  160  shows 
the  results  which  Mr.  Stringfellow  secures 
from  stub -roots  and  long  roots. 

In  1896,  experiments  on 
the  stub -root  pruning  were 
begun  at  Cornell,  and  these 
are  now  reported.  This 
account  of  the  tests  is  in- 
serted more  for  the  purpose 
of  affording  concrete  in- 
stances with  which  to  discuss 
the  statements  advanced  in 
support  of  stub -root  prun- 


159.      Brunk's 
model. 


*"Hold  the  tree  top  down,   and  cut  all  roots  back  to  about  an  inch, 
sloping  the  cuts  so  that  when  the  tree  is  set  the  exit  surface  is  down- 


STUB -ROOT     PRUNING  241 

ing  than  to  make  a  record  of  an  experiment. 
Not  all  the  trees  were  trimmed  in  the  String- 
fellow  fashion,  for  other  problems  than  mere 
stub -root  pruning  were  in  mind.  Besides  the 
four  hundred  trees  here  reported,  the  roots  of 
two  hundred  apple  trees  were  cut  in  different 


160.     Results  of  stub-root  and  long-root  pruning  (after 

Stringfellow).     No.  1,  trimmed  to  stubs  ;    No.  2,  ordinary 

long  roots. 

ways,  in  order  that  the  formation  of  the  new 
root  system  might  be  studied.  The  trees  were 
commercial  northern -grown,  and  were  set  in  a 
moist  and  well -tilled  sandy  loam.  They  were 
set  on  the  4th  of  May,  which  was  as  early  as 


wards.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  roots  are  generally  emitted  per- 
pendicularly to  the  plane  or  surface  of  the  cut.  This  final  pruning  should 
be  done  shortly  before  planting,  so  as  to  present  a  fresh  surface  for  the 
callus  to  form  on.  If  trees  are  to  be  kept  some  time,  or  shipped  by  a 
nurseryman,  abftut  two  inches  of  root  should  be  left,  the  planter  to  cut 
back  as  directed  when  the  tree  is  set.  About  a  foot  of  top  should  be  left. 
More  or  less  makes  no  difference.  If  the  tree  is  well  staked,  three  feet 
may  be  left  without  diminishing  the  growth  much."— Stringfe llow  in 
"The  New  Horticulture," 85. 


242 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


the  ground  could  be  fitted.  Every  care  was  taken 
to  have  all  the  conditions  ideal  and  uniform.  One 
hundred  trees  were  set  each  of  peach,  plum,  pear 

and  apple.  Each  kind  was 
divided  into  four  or  five 
lots,  one  lot  being  cut 
very  short,  and  the  others 
successively  longer,  until 
the  last  lot,  in  which  the 
roots  were  not  trimmed. 
The  weather  for  the  first 
month  after  planting  was 
hot  and  dry,  but  the  land 
was  frequently  tilled  to 
conserve  the  moisture. 

The  trees  were  photo- 
graphed before  being 
planted,  and  some  of 
them  were  removed  at 
intervals  and  again  pho- 
161.  New  roots  start  tographed.  In  this  way, 

from  both  the  trunk  and  the   the    prOCCSS    of    root    form- 
fine  roots.  ation 


g  carefully  studied. 

It  was  found,  as  I  have  already  indicated  (pages 
228,  235),  that  neither  the  place  of  origin  of 
the  new  roots  nor  the  direction  of  them  was 
determined  by  the  mode  of  pruning.  Fig.  161 
is  an  apple  root  trimmed  to  a  simple  stub,  with 
some  of  the  fine  side  roots,  a,  left  on.  The  new 
roots  arose  both  from  the  main  trunk  and  from 


STRINGFELLOW    ROOT  -  PRUNING 


243 


the  small  rootlets,  and  none  of  them  arose  from 
the  callus ;  and  there  was  no  tendency  for  them 
to  arise  from  the  lower  end  of  the  stub  (compare 
Figs.  154,  155,  156). 
Two  similar  apple  trees 
were  trimmed  in  differ- 
ent ways,  and  a  month 
after  planting  they  were 
taken  up  and  engravings 
made.  The  close-pruned 
specimen  (Fig.  162)  was 
barely  alive,  but  the 
other  (Fig.  163)  was 
making  a  good  growth. 
The  roots  shown  in 
Figs.  161  and  162  are 
not  of  the  form  pre- 
scribed by  Mr.  String- 
fellow,  nor  is  it  possi- 
ble to  prune  most  strong 
New -York -grown  trees 
in  that  fashion.  How- 
ever, many  of  the  trees 
had  strong  lateral  roots, 
and  with  these  care  was 
taken  to  copy  the  ortho- 
dox form;  and  some  ff 
of  these  are  illustrated. 
For  example,  Fig.  164 


162.     Reduced 
to  a  cutting. 


163.    Better  results 

shows  the  roots  of   four    with  roots  left. 


244 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


average  peach  trees  after  they  had  grown  two 
seasons.  The  one  at  the  left  was  trimmed  to 
the  form  advised  in  Fig.  157,  and  yet  it  was 
the  most  shallow -rooted  of  all  the  trees ;  and 


164.     Typical  results  in  peach  trees. 


many  other  trees  told  the  same  story.  Yet  this 
mode  of  pruning  has  for  its  object  "to  con- 
centrate all  the  vital  energy  of  the  newly  set 
tree  on  a  limited  root -surf  ace,  and  compel  it  to 
strike  several  strong,  perpendicular  tap-roots, 
and  while  doing  this,  not  to  allow  its  attention 
to  be  diverted  to  forming  side  or  lateral  roots 
at  the  same  time."* 

Some  of  the  facts  of  this  experiment  at  Cornell 
may  be  presented  in  the  following  form  (the 
planting  dates  being  in  May,  1896,  and  the  final 
notes  taken  December,  1897) : 

*Stringfellow,  "New  Horticulture,"  100. 


ROOT -PRUNING   PEACHES  245 

PEACH  (HORTON  EIVERS) 

(Twenty  trees  in  each  lot) 

A.  Roots  normal,  six  inches  long.    Sixteen  lived.    All  roots 

had  a  strong  downward  tendency.  See  right-hand 
root  in  Fig.  164.  Average  weight  of  trees,  December, 
1897,  seventeen  pounds. 

B.  Roots  cut  to  four  and  one-half  inches  long.    Eighteen 

lived.  The  strongest,  thriftiest,  most  shapely  trees 
in  any  of  the  lots.  Roots  all  striking  downwards. 

C.  Roots  cut  to  three  inches  long.     Fifteen  lived.     Ten  had 

downward -growing  roots,  and  five  had  very  flat  or 
horizontal  root  systems. 

D.  Roots  cut  to  two  inches  long.  Nine  lived.   Five  had  down- 

ward-growing  roots  and  four  had  horizontal  roots. 

E.  Roots  cut  to  one  inch  long.    Twelve  lived.    Six  had  roots 

with  downward  tendency,  and  six  had  all  roots  almost 
perfectly  horizontal.  The  three  left-hand  specimens  in 
Fig.  164  are  from  this  lot  E.  The  tree  on  the  extreme 
left  weighed  one  pound  fourteen  ounces,  and  rep- 
resents an  average  specimen.  The  second  from  the 
left  weighed  five  pounds  eight  ounces,  and  is  the 
best  tree  in  the  lot.  The  third  from  the  left  is  the 
only  one  in  the  lot  that  had  a  distinct  tap-root.  It 
weighed  four  pounds  five  ounces. 

From  first  to  last,  the  moderately  pruned  trees 
were  clearly  the  best,  and  the  stub -root  trees  were 
poor  and  weak,  even  after  two  years7  growth. 

PEAR  (BARTLETT) 

(Twenty-five  trees  in  each  lot) 

A.  Normal.     Roots  six  to  eight   inches    long.     Twenty-one 
lived;  sixteen  first-class  trees. 


246 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


B.  Tap -root  not  trimmed;    side  roots  two  to  three  inches 

long.  Twenty -two  lived ;  sixteen  first-class  trees.  The 
best  lot.  &  and  &&,  Fig.  165,  are  average  roots;  & 
weighed  three  pounds  eight  ounces,  and  &&  three 
pounds  twelve  ounces. 

C.  Tap-root  not  trimmed;  side  roots  one  inch  long.    Fifteen 

lived;  seven  first-class  trees.     A  poor  lot. 

D.  Tap-root  cut  to  six  inches;    side  roots  one  inch    long. 

Fifteen  lived;   1  first-class  tree,     d,  Fig.  165,  was  the 
dd  d  bb  b 


165.     Typical  results  in  pear  trees. 

only  tree  in  the  lot  worth  saving,  dd  shows  a  tree  still 
living  after  having  been  in  the  ground  two  years,  but 
it  had  made  no  roots  whatever.  It  was  trimmed  to  a 
bare  stump  when  set.  Six  trees  behaved  in  this  way, 
and  only  two  of  them  made  a  callus  on  the  wound. 
The  tops  did  not  grow,  but  they  supported  a  few 
leaves.  The  stub -root  probably  absorbed  a  little 
moisture,  and  there  was  some  food  stored  in  the  wood, 
so  that  the  plant  was  able  to  live. 


SHORT -ROOT    PRUNING 


247 


PLUM  (LOMBARD,  BUDDED  ON  MYROBALAN  ROOTS) 

(Twenty-five  trees  in  each  lot) 

A.  Normal.     Tap-root,  eight  inches;  side  roots,  three  to  six 

inches.  Twenty-three  lived.  Right-hand  specimen  in 
Fig.  166  is  an  average  root.  Weight  of  tree  and  root, 
five  pounds  ten  ounces. 

B.  Tap,  six  inches;    side,  two  to  four  inches.    Twenty-three 

lived. 

C.  Tap,  four  inches;  side,  two  inches.     Twenty-four  lived. 

D.  Tap,  four  inches;    sides,  one  inch.     Twenty-two  lived. 

Left-hand  specimen,  Fig.  166,  is  an  average  root. 
Weight  six  pounds  ten  ounces. 

All  the  lots  were    remarkably  uniform    in   size 
and  thriftiness.      From    the    tops    it   would   have 


166.     Stub-root  and  long-root  on  plum. 

been  difficult  to  distinguish  them.  The  short- 
pruned  roots  gave  the  shallowest  root  systems, 
however.  It  is  easy  to  account  for  the  large  size 
of  the  short -pruned  trees,  for  the  Myrobalan  plum 
grows  readily  from  cuttings. 


248 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


APPLE    (HUBBARDSTON,    BUDDED   STOCK) 
(Twenty-Jive  trees  in  each  lot) 

A.  Normal.     Roots  six  to  eight  inches.     Twenty  lived;  sev- 

enteen first-class;  a,  Fig.  167,  average  specimen,   one 
pound  fourteen  ounces. 

B.  Roots  two  to  three  inches  long,  and  tap  not  cut.    Eigh- 

teen lived;  thirteen  first-class.     &,  Fig.  167,  average 


167.     Average  results  on  apple  trees. 

specimen  (a  good  root  system!),  one  pound  fourteen 
ounces. 

C.  Roots   one    inch  long,  and   tap  not  cut.     Twenty  lived; 

twelve  first-class,  c,  Fig.  167,  best  specimen  in  the 
lot,  two  pounds  eleven  ounces. 

D.  Roots  one  inch  long,  and  tap  cut  back,  thirteen   lived; 

four  good  trees,  but  not  first-class,  and  four  more  with 
fairly  good  roots  but  poor  tops,  d,  Fig.  167,  average 
and  typical  specimen. 


THE    STRINGFELLOW    METHOD  249 

In  all  these  trees,  except  the  Myrobalan  plum 
roots,  the  short -root  pruning  was  a  decided  dis- 
advantage. Yet  there  is  no  contradicting  the  fact 
that  others  have  obtained  good  results  from  it, 
and  it  has  been  put  to  a  successful  commercial 
test.  All  this  shows,  as  has  been  said  (page  238), 
that  stub -root  pruning  is  to  be  considered  a  mat- 
ter of  local  practice,  not  a  matter  of  general 
principle.  The  practice  may  be  good  and  it  may 
not :  the  explanation  or  assumed  theory  is  wrong. 
It  will  probably  be  found  to  be  best  adapted  to 
the  South,  where  plants  grow  from  cuttings  more 
readily  than  in  the  North  ;  and  the  nature  of  the 
land  as  respects  texture,  and  the  nearness  of  the 
water-table,  will  probably  influence  the  result. 
The  kind  of  tree  may  also  be  important.  The 
stubbing -back  of  the  top  is  a  disadvantage  to 
those  who  desire  to  grow  long -bodied  trees. 

It  is  always  well  to  challenge  established  prac- 
tices and  accepted  theories,  for  thereby  we  make 
progress.  In  this  respect,  Mr.  Stringfellow  and 
his  followers  have  no  doubt  done  a  distinct  ser- 
vice.* Perhaps  we  have  placed  too  great  value  on 
a  large  root -system  when  transplanting  trees,  and 


*Aside  from  its  merits  as  a  matter  of  pruning,  Mr.  Stringfellow  sees 
the  following  advantages  of  stub-roots:  (l)  Saving  the  nurseryman  in 
digging  his  stock;  (2)  Saving  in  packing  the  stock;  (3)  Saving  in  trans- 
portation; (4)  Saving  in  planting;  (5)  Reducing  danger  of  carrying  in- 
sects and  diseases;  (6)  Enables  the  planter  to  set  extra  large  trees,  which 
the  nurseryman  now  has  to  throw  away,  and  thus  obtain  fruit  much 
sooner. 


250  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

our  opinions  may  need  to  be  revised;  but  it  does 
not  follow  that  the  opposite  extreme  is  the  better. 
The  writer  prefers  trees  with  roots  on ;  but  he  has 
no  quarrel  with  those  who  prefer  them  with  roots  off. 


SUBSEQUENT  TREATMENT   OF   THE  PLANTS 

Having  now  obtained  a  general  conception  of 
the  type  of  tree  which  we  wish  to  grow,  and 
having  started  off  the  main  or  scaffold  branches, 
the  subsequent  treatment  consists  in  cutting  out 
all  interfering  and  superfluous  limbs  and  keep- 
ing the  top  within  the  shape  which  we  have  in 
mind.  It  is  impossible  to  give  specific  advice 
as  to  wrhat  branches  should  be  cut,  for  every 
branch  is  a  problem  in  itself,  and  must  be  solved 
for  itself.  In  fruit  trees,  the  head  should  be 
kept  fairly  open,  so  that  all  parts  are  exposed 
to  sun  and  air,  and  the  tree  is  made  accessible 
to  pickers,  and  easy  to  spray.  All  limbs  which 
tend  to  make  an  over -vigorous  growth  should 
be  cut  out  or  checked,  in  order  that  the  tree  may 
keep  its  balance,  and  limbs  which  run  directly 
crosswise  the  top,  and  those  which  rub  each 
other,  should  be  removed. 

Some  of  the  problems  connected  with  the  form 
of  the  top  may  be  suggested  in  a  series  of  pic- 
tures taken  from  an  individual  tree  of  Rhode 
Island  Greening.  This  tree  was  set  in  the  spring 
of  1889.  Having  grown  two  years  without  prun- 


BEHAVIOR  OF  A  GREENING  TREE 


251 


ing,  in  the  fall  of  1890  it  looked  like  Fig.  168. 
In  the  winter  of  1890-1  it  was  pruned,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  169.  The  tree  stands  in  rich  soil  and 
has  made  a  heavy  growth.  As  the  top  begins 


168.     Greening  tree  of  two 
seasons'  growth  (1890). 


169.     The  same 
pruned. 


to  expand,  the  apparent  length  of  the  trunk 
decreases,  and  in  the  fall  of  1892  the  tree  looked 
as  shown  in  Fig.  170  ;  that  is,  tops  which 
may  appear  to  be  very  high  when  trees  are 
young  may  appear  to  be  low  when  the  trees  have 


170.     The  same  tree,  two  years  later  (fall  of  1892). 


171.     The  tree  again  pruned. 


BEHAVIOR  OF  A  GREENING  TREE     253 

attained  some  age.  All  these  pictures  (168-174) 
are  drawn  with  great  care  to  a  scale,  and  the 
length  of  trunk  bears  a  true  proportion  to  the 
width  of  the  top  in  every  case.  In  the  winter 
of  1892-3  the  tree,  as  shown  in  Fig.  170,  was 
pruned  to  the  extent  shown  in  Fig.  171,  and  the 


172.    The  same  tree  starting  into  growth  (1893). 

following  summer  (that  is,  1893)  the  tree  had 
the  form  shown  in  Fig.  172.  Late  in  the  season 
of  1894  the  tree  was  drawn  again,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  173.  The  following  winter  it  was  again 
pruned,  and  in  the  spring  of  1895  it  had  the 
appearance  of  Fig.  174.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
long  and  stilt -like  character  of  the  tree  has  wholly 


173.    The  tree  in  the  fall  of  1894. 


174.    In  the  spring  of  1895,  having  been  pruned  in 
the  winter. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  APPLE  TREES 


255 


disappeared,  and  the  very  perceptible  crook  in 
the  trunk  has  tended  to  straighten.  The  tree 
now  begins  to  have  character,  and  its  four  scaf- 
fold limbs  are  well  established.  The  tree  is  not 
ideal  in  form,  however,  since  it  has  too  much 


175.     Tetofsky  apple  tree. 


176.  The  Tetofsky  pruned. 


of  a  crotch ;  and  at  the  present  time  a  living 
brace  has  been  interwoven  between  the  two 
crotches,  as  shown  in  Fig.  109. 

A  Tetofsky  apple  tree,  two  years  planted,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  175.  It  is  a  variety  which  makes 
very  few  strong  interior  growths,  and  therefore 
needs  comparatively  little  thinning.  It  is  already 


177.    Longfleld  apple,  four  years  set. 


179.     Windsor  cherry,  four  years  set.  180.     The  tree  pruned. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  APPLE  TREES       257 

making  conspicuous  fruit -spurs  alongside  the 
upright  branches.  The  pruning  of  the  tree  is 
shown  in  Fig.  176.  There  are  three  main  or 
scaffold  limbs.  Some  of  the  other  branches, 
which  are  left,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove 
as  time  goes  on ;  but  it  is  always  difficult  to 
determine  in  the  beginning  just  which  ones  are 


181.    Well-formed  pie  cherry. 

wanted,  and  it  is  well  not  to  trim  the  tree  too 
heavily,  so  as  to  reduce  its  leaf-bearing  capacity, 
and  to  set  it  into  too  strong  growth  of  water- 
sprouts. 

A  Longfleld  apple  tree  is  shown  in  Fig.  177. 
The  variety  has  a  weeping  habit,  and  the  effort 
must  be  to  encourage  the  upper  limbs  and  to 
remove  the  lower  or  drooping 

Q  *f  "     OF  TRK 

UNIVERSITY 


S>F 


trn 


258 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


is  done  is  shown  in  Fig.  178.  The  tree  was 
started  too  low  in  the  first  place,  and  it  has  a 
bad  crotch ;  and  later  on,  the  large  fork  on 
the  right  was  entirely  removed.  It  then  had 


182.     Apricot  in  need  of  pruning. 


PRUNING    OF    YOUNG    TREES 


259 


183.     One  way  of  treating  Fig.  182. 

a  good  form,  but  the  tree  is  now  weeping  as 
much  as  ever ;  that  is,  it  is  impossible  to  over- 
come the  natural  habit  of  the  tree,  and  however 
high  the  Longfield  may  be  trained,  it  will  eventu- 
ally reach  nearly  or  quite  to  the  ground. 

A  sweet  cherry  (the  Windsor)  is  shown  in  Figs. 


260  SOME     SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

179  and  180.  This  also  has  a  bad  crotch,  and 
eventually  one  of  the  branches  was  cut  away, 
as  shown  in  A,  Fig.  180,  leaving  a  tree  of  good 
form,  with  the  branches  started  about  four  feet 
high.  The  general  thinning  of  the  top,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  180,  is  perhaps  about  right.  A  sour 
cherry  (Early  Richmond)  is  shown,  after  prun- 
ing, in  Fig.  181.  This  tree  has  an  almost  ideal 
type  of  branching,  and'  the  pruning  is  about  as 
near  perfect  as  we  can  ordinarily  make  it. 

An  apricot  tree  is  shown  in  Figs.  182  and 
183.  This  tree  grows  against  the  south  side  of 
a  building,  although  it  is  not  trained  on  the 
wall.  It  is  desired,  therefore,  to  have  a  very 
flat  and  spreading  top.  The  branches  were 
started  low,  but  they  arise  too  nearly  from  a 
common  point,  thereby  making  a  bad  crotch, 
yet  the  apricot  is  less  likely  to  split  than  trees 
which  bear  heavier  loads  of  fruit.  The  tree 
was  neglected  for  three  or  four  years,  and  when 
pruning  became  necessary,  it  was  thinned  out  to 
the  extent  shown  in  Fig.  183.  The  head  can 
thereafter  be  kept  free  and  open  with  only  a 
slight  amount  of  annual  cutting. 

A  neglected  peach  tree,  four  years  planted, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  184.  It  is  very  thick,  and  some 
of  the  lower  branches  are  weak  and  almost  dead 
because  they  have  been  overshaded  by  the  dense 
top.  This  tree  was  pruned  to  the  form  shown 
in  Fig.  185,  and  is  now  a  handsome  and  prolific 


184.  Neglected  peach  tree,  four  years  set.  185.    The  tree  pruned. 


186.    Two-year-set  peach  tree,  before 
pruning  (Hale). 


187.     The  peach  tree  pruned 
and  headed-back. 


262 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


tree.     Figs.  186  and  187  are  adapted  from  photo- 
graphs   published    by  J.   H.   Hale,   to    show   the 


•..-•- 


188.     Headed-back  upon  transplanting. 

methods   of  treating   a  peach  tree.     In  Fig.  187, 
the  tree  has  been  thinned  and  headed -back. 

In   the   transplanting    of    large   or    established 
trees,  it  is  very  necessarv  that  the  tops  be  headed- 


TOP -WORKED    TREES  263 

back,  and  the  more  serious  the  cutting  of  the 
roots,  the  more  extensive  should  be  the  cutting- 
in  of  the  top.  Fig.  188  shows  a  six -year -old 
cherry  tree  which  has  been  cut  back  after  trans- 
planting. In  all  such  cases,  it  is  important 
that  old  and  dry  stubs  are  not  left  on  the  trees. 
The  stubs  should  be  cut  back  from  time  to  time 
as  new  branches  start,  always  giving  preference 
to  the  strong  growth,  and  cutting  out  the  feeble 
wood. 

MANAGEMENT    OF    TOP-WORKED    TREES 

When  trees  are  top -budded  or  top -grafted,  it  is 
usually  the  purpose  to  change  their  entire  top  to 
the  new  variety.  The  methods  of  performing 
the  work,  and  the  general  position  of  the  buds  or 
grafts,  are  somewhat  fully  discussed  in  the  last 
edition  of  "The  Nursery -Book."  In  old  trees  it 
is  generally  desirable  to  graft  all  the  leading 
limbs,  thereby  endeavoring  to  maintain  the  origi- 
nal shape  as  nearly  as  possible.  In  young  trees, 
only  two  or  three  of  the  limbs  can  be  grafted  or 
budded,  and  sometimes  the  whole  top  is  cut  off 
and  the  main  stock  or  trunk  is  grafted.  The 
grafting  of  the  main  trunk  has  some  disadvan- 
tages, because  a  bad  fork  is  apt  to  occur  at  the 
graft,  and  it  is  usually  better,  therefore,  to  set 
the  cions  or  buds  in  the  branches.  Fig.  189  shows 
the  treatment  of  a  small  apple  tree  which  is  top- 
budded.  Three  buds  are  inserted,  one  in  the 


264 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


main  trunk  or  leader,  and  one  in  each  of  the  two 
side  branches.     The  buds  are  inserted  in  summer, 


189.     Top-budded  apple  tree. 

and  early  the  next  spring  the  limbs  are  cut  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  above  each  bud,  as  in  A.  Fig. 
190  shows  another  tree  in  which  many  buds  have 
been  set,  all  of  which  are  growing.  It  shows  that 
the  stubs  project  beyond  the  buds.  As  soon  as  the 


TOP -WORKED    TREES 


265 


190.     Top-budded  apple  tree. 

buds  have  begun  to  grow  vigorously,  these  stubs 
should  be  cut  back  close  to  the  base  of  the  new 
branch,  to  facilitate  their  healing  over. 


266 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


A  strong  pear  tree  was  grafted  in  three  limbs. 
The  grafting  was  done  in  April.  In  September 
of  the  same  year,  the  tree  looked  as  shown  in 
Fig.  191,  being  very  much  entangled  with  strong 


Lv^ 


191.     Top-grafted  pear. 

watersprouts,  because  of  the  severe  pruning.  Be- 
fore growth  began  the  following  spring,  all  of 
this  adventitious  growth  was  removed,  the  tree 
then  looking  like  Fig.  192.  Some  of  the  branches 
of  the  stock  were  left,  since  the  grafts  were  not 
yet  large  enough  to  form  the  whole  top.  If  too 
much  of  the  stock  is  cut  off  the  cions  tend  to 


TOP -WORKED    TREES  267 

grow  too   long,  and  are   likely   to   be  broken  by 
snow  and  wind. 

In  trees  which  have  been  set  only  two  to  four 
years,   the   top   can   be   changed    in   two   years ; 


192.     The  pear  tree  pruned. 

but  apple  trees  which  are  fifteen  or  twenty  years 
old  can  ordinarily  not  be  changed  so  rapidly. 
Four  or  five  years  may  be  required  in  some  cases. 
Fig.  193  is  a  Lombard  plum  tree  which  was 
grafted  to  a  Japanese  variety.  The  tree  was  four 
years  old  when  grafted,  and  the  second  year  there- 


193.    A  plum  tree  changed  to 
a  new  variety. 


194.     In  need  of 
attention. 


TOP -WORKED    TREES  269 

after  all  the  old  top  was  removed,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  It  will  now  be  necessary  to  cut 
off  some  of  the  cions  and  to  thin  out  the  top, 
much  as  if  the  tree  were  recently  planted. 

It  is  always  essential  that  the  operator  look  out 
for  adventitious  growths  or  suckers  from  the 
stock,  after  the  tree  has  been  changed  to  the  de- 
sired variety.  The  equilibrium  of  the  tree  has 
been  so  much  upset  by  the  heavy  pruning  that 
these  watersprouts  and  auxiliary  growths  may 
arise  for  several  years.  Fig.  194  is  a  Kilmarnock 
willow.  This  is  a  weeping  variety,  which  is 
grafted  upon  a  strong,  upright -growing  stock. 
In  this  case,  the  stock  has  thrown  out  long 
suckers,  and  the  drooping  head  is  beginning  to 
famish  and  die.  These  suckers  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  form,  else  good  results 
cannot  be  obtained  with  the  cion.  This  trouble 
of  suckering  from  the  stock  is  very  apt  to  occur 
in  ornamental  plants,  as  in  top -worked  weeping 
and  variegated  varieties.  Such  varieties  are  gen- 
erally weak  growers,  and  cannot  take  up  the 
exuberant  strength  of  the  root. 

MANAGEMENT   OF  DWARF    TREES 

Dwarf  plants  are  those  which  do  not  attain 
to  the  normal  or  habitual  stature  of  the  species 
or  variety  to  which  they  belong.  There  are  two 
general  categories  of  dwarf  plants, — dwarf  va- 
rieties, and  dwarf  individuals.  The  former  class 


270  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

retains  its  dwarf  ness  of  itself,  without  artificial 
aid.  It  is  the  nature  of  such  plants  to  be  dwarf. 
The  manner  of  their  origin  is  usually  obscure, 
and  it  appeals  to  the  plant -breeder.*  The  sec- 
ond class  is  forced  to  be  dwarf  by  some  treat- 
ment which  is  applied  to  each  individual  plant. 
Plants  are  dwarfed  by  three  means, — 

By  grafting   or   budding   on  a  slower -growing 

root ; 
By  confining  the  tops  by  means  of  pruning  or 

training  ; 

By  confining  the  roots  by  means  of  pruning  or 
by  growing  in  pots,  boxes,  or  other  re- 
stricted place. 

The  first  category  is  not  a  subject  for  discussion 
in  a  pruning -book,  but  it  may  be  said  that  it  is 
not  enough  that  the  plant  be  worked  on  slow- 
growing  root:  it  must  also  be  systematically 
headed -in  if  its  stature  is  to  be  kept  within 
bounds.  This  is  true  of  dwarf  pears,  dwarf 
apples,  dwarf  cherries,  and  all  the  rest. 

Root -pruning,  as  a  means  of  limiting  growth, 
has  already  been  discussed  (page  227) .  In  prac- 
tice, it  is  nearly  unknown  in  this  country.  In 
small  areas  it  can  be  employed,  but  it  is  inappli- 
cable to  our  commercial  plantations. 


*A  discussion  of  dwarfs  from  the  bi-eeder's  standpoint  may  be 
found  in  "Plant-Breeding;"  from  the  propagator's  standpoint,  in  "The 
Nursery-Book;"  and  from  the  fruit-grower's  standpoint,  in  "Principles  of 
Fruit-Growing." 


PRUNING    DWARF    TREES  271 

Top -pruning  of  a  dwarf  has  two  objects, — to 
limit  the  growth,  and  to  train  the  plant  to  some 
desired  form.  Pruning  to  limit  growth  is  merely 
heading -back.  This  should  be  done  every  winter. 
How  much  the  growth  shall  be  headed -back  de- 
pends on  its  length  and  the  age  of  the  tree. 
Dwarf  pears  and  apples  which  make  an  average 
growth  of  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  on  their 
uppermost  twigs  are  usually  headed -back  a  half 
to  five -sixths  of  that  growth.  This  cutting- 
back  will  induce  a  lateral  or  interior  growth  (Sec- 
tion 9,  Chap.  IV.),  and  this  must  be  thinned  out. 
It  is  generally  best  to  prune  very  late  in  winter 
or  early  in  spring,  and  to  cut  to  within  three- 
eighths  inch  of  a  bud  (see  Figs.  82,  83). 

Pruning  to  secure  some  desired  shape  of  the 
top  must,  of  course,  be  governed  by  the  ideal  of 
the  operator.  There  are  two  general  forms  to 
which  dwarf  fruit  trees  are  pruned, — the  pyra- 
mid and  the  inverted  cone.  The  pyramid  is 
popular  in  Europe,  and  the  Old  World  writings 
contain  minute  descriptions  of  the  details  of 
pruning  for  this  ideal.  Fig.  195  shows  dwarf 
pear  pyramids  in  the  grounds  of  the  Royal  Hor- 
ticultural Society,  at  Chiswick,  England.  The 
essential  feature  of  this  type  of  training  is  a 
central  shaft  from  which  successive  tiers  of 
branches  are  taken. 

The  flat -topped  or  inverted -cone -shaped  style 
of  training  is  the  commonest  ideal  in  commercial 


272 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


American  orchards,  although  there  are  few  plan- 
tations in  which  it  has  been  systematically  worked 
out.  Probably  the  best  example  of  it  in  America 
is  the  orchard  of  T.  G.  Yeomans  &  Sons,  Wai- 
worth,  New  York,  an  orchard  which  is  still  vig- 


195.     Pyramidal  training  of  dwarf  pears.    England. 

orous  and  productive,  although  it  has  been  com- 
mercially successful  for  nearly  half  a  century 
(planted  in  1852).  Good  trees  from  this  planta- 
tion are  shown  in  Fig.  196.  The  essential  feature 
of  this  type  of  training — which  the  writer  believes 
to  be  the  best  for  American  conditions — is  a 
framework  of  several  approximately  coordinate 
branches  arising  near  the  ground. 


DWARF    PEARS 


273 


Since  the  Yeomanses  have  been  so  successful 
with  dwarf  pears,  it  will  be  profitable  to  study 
their  description  of  the  method  of  pruning,  and 


#• 


196.     Flat-topped  training  of  dwarf  pears.     New  York. 

These  trees  were  forty-five  years  old  when  the 

picture  was  taken. 

especially  so,  also,  since  this  account  seems  to  be 
the  clearest  exposition  of  dwarf  pear  pruning 
for  commercial  orchards  which  is  accessible  to 
the  American  student:* 

"Experience  has  convinced  me  that,  with  good  trees  of 
well  chosen  varieties,  on  any  good  land,  which  is  never  too 
wet,  and  with  the  culture  a  good  farmer  gives  his  other 
crops,  and  the  important  —  nay,  more,  the  indispensable  — 
requisite  to  success,—  thorough  pruning,—  no  one  need  fail 

*This  sketch  is  a  copyrighted  article  published  in  the  nursery  circulars 
of  T.  G.  Yeomans  &  Sons,  at  the  time  when  the  firm  was  in  the  nur- 
sery business.  Reprinted  by  permission. 

R 


274  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

of  attaining  a  degree  of  success  highly  satisfactory  and 
profitable. 

"  A  dwarf  pear  tree  should  never  be  planted  at  one  year 
old.  A  good  one-year-old  tree  consists  of  a  single  upright 
shoot  or  stem,  from  three  and  one -half  to  five  feet  high, 
and  should  be  cut  off  at  about  two  feet  from  the  ground; 
and  in  order  to  give  a  smooth,  handsome  stem  or  trunk,  let 
the  buds  be  rubbed  off  to  the  height  of  one  foot  from  the 
ground,  leaving  on  the  upper  portion  six  to  nine  buds, 
more  or  less.  With,  the  tree  standing  in  its  original  posi- 
tion in  full  vigor,  and  cut  back  as  above  stated,  each  one  of 
these  buds  will  throw  out  a  good,  strong  branch,  which  gives 
a  full,  round,  distaff  form  to  the  tree.  This  is  the  time  and 
manner,  and  the  only  time,  when  that  desirable  shape  can 
be  given  on  which  the  future  form  and  symmetry  and 
beauty  depends.  To  avoid  what  is  termed  a  crotched  or 
forked-top  tree,  in  which  the  two  uppermost  branches  are 
about  of  equal  vigor  and  height,  let  the  second  branch 
from  the  top  be  pinched  off  when  about  nine  inches  or  a 
foot  long,  which  will  check  and  weaken  it,  while  the  upper- 
most one  becomes  a  strong,  central  leader.  Whereas,  if 
the  tree  be  transplanted  at  one  year  old,  and  cut  back  as 
above  stated,  the  vital  forces  of  the  tree  will  be  weakened 
half  or  three -fourths  by  transplanting,  and  as  the  result, 
only  two  or  three  (more  or  less)  of  the  buds  on  the  trunk 
will  grow  so  as  to  form  branches,  and  they,  perhaps,  only  at 
the  top  or  all  on  one  side,  while  the  remaining  buds  remain 
dormant,  never  afterwards  to  be  developed,  as  the  other 
branches  form  new  channels,  which  will  more  readily  carry 
the  sap  to  the  other  and  upper  portions  of  the  trees. 

"For  transplanting,  therefore,  let  a  tree  be  two  or  more 
years  old  from  the  bud,  well  cut  back  at  one  year  old,  and 
with  six  to  nine  main  branches,  which  form  the  framework 
or  foundation,  which  is  to  give  form  and  character  to  the 
future  tree,  with  proper  care  and  management. 

"The  annexed  cut  (Fig.  197)  will  illustrate  a  two-year-old 


DWARF    PEARS 


275 


tree,  as  above  described,  its  lower  branches  about  one  foot 
from  the  ground,  its  upper  branches  being  the  strongest  and 
most  upright,  and  those  below  less  vigorous  and  more  hori- 
zontal. I  speak  of  this  more 
particularly  for  the  reason 
that  all  the  cuts  which  I  have 
noticed  in  works  on  pomology, 
and  in  agricultural  papers 
represent  a  two-year-old  tree, 
with  branches  much  the  long- 
est and  strongest  at  the  bot- 
tom and  diminishing  in  vigor 
towards  the  top,  except,  per- 
haps, the  center  top  branch  ; 
while  all  experience  illustrates 
the  principle  that  the  sap  flows 
most  freely  and  readily  to  the 
upper  branches,  giving  them 
vigor,  strength  and  upright- 
ness, to  the  diminution  of  the 
same  characteristics  in  those 

below.       The    dotted    lines    indicate   where   the    branches 
should  be  cut  back  at  the  time  of  planting. 

"In  cutting  a  tree,  with  the  branches  formed  as  above 
described,  let  the  leader  be  cut  down  within  four  or  six 
inches  of  the  place  where  the  one-year-old  tree  was  cut  off, 
and  just  above  a  good  bud  on  the  side  of  the  tree  over  the 
previous  year's  cut,  thus  keeping  the  leader  in  a  perpen- 
dicular position  over  the  original  trunk  or  bottom  of  the  tree. 

"If  the  side  branches  aro  too  horizontal,  upper  buds  are 
left  for  their  extension ;  if  too  upright,  lower  buds  are  left. 
Side  direction  may  be  given,  if  desirable,  to  fill  wide  spaces, 
in  the  same  way.  Cut  the  other  branches  at  such  a  distance 
from  the  trunk  that  the  ends  of  them  will  form  a  pyra- 
mid, the  base  of  which  should  not  be  over  twelve  to  sixteen 
inches  in  diameter,  and  in  smallish  trees  much  less;  thus 


197. 

Treatment  of 

two-year-old 

dwarf  pear 

tree. 


198. 

Treatment 
for   a  three- 
year-old 
tree. 


276  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

the  lowest  branches  will  be  left  the  longest,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  check  the  natural  flow  of  sap  to  the  upper 
branches,  and  induce  it  to  flow  more  forcibly  to  the  lower 
ones,  increasing  in  vigor  and  force  of  the  latter  as  much  as 
possible,  which  must  be  done  at  that  time  or  never. 

"The  Fig.  198  represents  a  three-year-old  tree,  after  it 
has  been  pruned  at  two  years  old  and  made  the  third  years' 
growth,  and  showing  where  it  should  be  cut  back  at  that 
time.  All  subsequent  pruning  will  become  easy  to  any  one 
who  has  attended  to  these  directions  thus  far — observing 
the  same  principles— thinning  out  or  cutting  back  any  sec- 
ondary or  other  branches,  as  shall  seem  necessary  to  admit 
light  and  air,  or  give  vigor  or  symmetry  of  form  to  the 
tree ;  but  as  the  greater  force  of  sap  will  flow  to  the  central 
and  upright  branches,  they  will  need  to  be  cut-back  most, 
retaining  as  near  as  may  be  the  pyramidal  form.  Pruning 
may  be  done  at  any  time  from  November  to  April." 

These  trees,  shown  in  Figs.  197  and  198,  start 
out  with  a  pyramidal  treatment,  but  as  they  ma- 
ture, they  approach  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  196  ; 
and  the  Yeomans  trees  are  now  not  over  twelve 
feet  high,  although  nearly  fifty  years  old. 

Other  illustrations  may  elucidate  some  of  the 
ways  of  treating  dwarf  pears.  Fig.  199  is  a 
tree  at  the  end  of  its  first  season's  growth  in 
the  orchard.  The  forks  near  the  ends  of  the 
branches  show  where  it  was  cut  at  planting 
time.  Fig.  200  shows  the  way  in  which  it  was 
again  pruned. 

A  dwarf  pear  three  years  set  is  shown  in  Fig. 
201.  The  top  "was  started  wrong, — with  only  two 
branches  and  these  in  the  form  of  a  crotch. 


DWARF    PEARS 


277 


When  pruned  (Fig.  202)  two  sprouts  were  left. 
The  tree  will  now  have  four  scaffold  branches  ; 
but  it  will  never  be  a  model  tree. 

A  low -branching  Duchess  dwarf  pear  is  shown 
in  Fig.  203.      This  variety  is  a  narrow  and  tall 


199.     Dwarf  pear  at  end  of 
first  year  in  the  orchard. 

grower  when  young.  It  has  a  well-marked  leader 
and  several  scaffold  limbs.  It  is  pruned  in 
Fig.  204.  This  will  make  a  good  tree. 

The   pruning   of    dwarf    apples    is    essentially 
like   that   advised   for   pears.     If   the   tree   is   on 


278 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


Paradise  stock,  very  close  attention  must  be  given 
to  pruning,  else  the  top  will  become  too  large 
for  the  root.  If  it  is  on  the  larger -growing 


201.    A  bad-formed  tree. 


202.     The  tree  pruned. 


Doucin  stock,  a  somewhat   freer  growth  may  be 
allowed. 

The  following  remarks  on  pruning  dwarf  apples 
are  by  Lodeman :  * 

"Dwarf  apple  trees  should  be  very  thoroughly  pruned 
from  the  time  they  are  set.  The  object  of  this  pruning  is 
three-fold:  the  wood  which  is  capable  of  bearing  fruit  will 

*Dwarf  Apples,  Bull.  116,  Cornell  Exp.  Station. 


DWARF    APPLES 


279 


be  more  freely  produced,  the  fruit- spurs  will  be  distributed 
evenly  over  all  the  lower  parts  of  the  tree  as  well  as  the 
top,  and  the  tree  will  be  kept  in  a  dwarf  habit.  These 
results  may  not  be  obtained  if  too  little  wood  is  removed. 
Each  year's  growth,  if  vigorous,  should  be  cut  back  at 


203.     A  Duchess  dwarf 
pear,  four  years  set. 


204.     The  tree 
pruned. 


least  one -half  or  two -thirds,  and  generally  more  may  be 
removed  with  perfect  safety.  Occasionally,  dwarf  trees 
will  be  found  in  which  the  natural  vigor  of  the  cion  seems 
to  have  stimulated  an  undue  growth  of  roots,  so  that  the 
tree,  instead  of  remaining  small,  increases  rapidly  in  size, 
and  soon  it  bears  little  resemblance  to  the  plants  fre- 


280 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


queiitly  illustrated  in  books  to  show  how  a  dwarf  apple 
tree  ought  to  appear.  The  annual  growths  may  be  from 
one  to  two  feet  in  length,  and  at  this  rate  good -sized  trees 
are  formed  in  a  short  time. 

"The  tree  shown   in   Fig.  205    represents   a   good   type. 
The   original  from  which  the  drawing  was  made  was   five 


A  good  dwarf  apple  tree. 


feet  in  height,  the  lowest  leaves  being  but  eighteen  inches 
from  the  ground.  The  top  has  been  allowed  to  assume 
its  natural  spreading  form,  but  a  firm  control  has  continu- 
ally been  exercised  over  any  too  ambitious  efforts  of  the 
branches.  The  tree  has  practically  the  same  form  and 
size  which  it  will  retain  during  its  entire  existence.  The 
main  branches  will  increase  in  circumference,  the  outer 


DWARF    APPLES  281 

limbs  will  gradually  lengthen,  and  the  fruit- spurs  will 
become  more  crooked,  yet  the  tree  will  always  be  low 
and  spreading.  The  one  criticism  which  might  be  made 
is  that  the  lowest  fruiting  branches  are  still  too  high.  The 
foliage  of  the  ideal  dwarf  apple  tree  almost  touches  the 
ground;  it  has  all  its  main  branches  well  studded  with 
smaller  ones,  or  with  fruit- spurs,  so  that  when  in  full 
leaf,  it  shall  appear  'feathered'  from  bottom  to  top.*  * 

"Much  wood  is  allowed  to  remain  near  the  ground  and 
in  the  center  of  the  tree,  for  it  is  always  easier  to  remove 
superfluous  branches  than  it  is  to  insert  them  when  they 
are  wanted.  The  form  of  the  pruned  tree  is  that  of  a 
rather  broad  vase,  this  being  the  shape  which  the  tree 
naturally  assumes.  During  the  coming  season,  it  should 
be  well  provided  with  foliage,  so  that  none  of  the  main 
branches  shall  be  exposed  to  the  full  glare  of  the  summer 
sun.  The  fruit  produced  will  also  receive  proper  shade. 
The  specimen  as  a  whole  may  be  considered  as  a  good 
type  of  dwarf  apple  tree  which  has  not  been  forced  to 
assume  a  form  which  is  unnatural  to  it." 

RINGING  AND    GIRDLING 

Girdling  is  a  generic  term  used  to  designate  the 
making  of  a  wound  completely  around  a  stem. 
A  girdle  may  extend  only  through  the  bark,  or 
deep  into  the  wood.  Ringing  is  a  specific  horti- 
cultural term  used  to  designate  a  girdle  which 
extends  only  through  the  bark.  The  wound  may 
be  a  simple  incision  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  or 
it  may  be  made  by  the  complete  removal  of  a 
section  of  bark.  In  horticultural  practice,  gir- 
dling into  the  wood  is  rarely  desirable,  and  we 
shall,  therefore,  use  the  word  ringing. 


282  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

We  have  already  seen  the  philosophy  of  ring- 
ing (pages  161,  166).  It  promotes  fruitfulness  of 
the  part  above  the  rings,  because  the  elaborated 
food  is  held  there,  not  being  able  to  pass  the 
girdle  in  its  downward  course.  The  fattening  of 
the  top,  so  to  speak,  is  at  the  expense  of  the  part 
below  the  ring.  If  the  bark  is  not  allowed  to 
cover  the  ring,  the  root  must  eventually  starve, 
unless  there  is  foliage  below  the  ring  to  support 
it.  As  a  matter  of  practice,  however,  the  ring  is 
made  in  spring  and  is  allowed  to  heal,  and  the 
direct  effect  is,  therefore,  confined  mostly  to  the 
year  in  which  the  ringing  is  performed. 

Ringing  is  useful  in  two  ways, — it  may  set  un- 
productive trees  into  bearing,  and  it  may  modify 
the  fruit  which  is  borne  above  the  ring.  The 
former  effect  usually  does  not  come  until  the  year 
following  the  ringing — sometimes  not  till  the  sec- 
ond year.  The  latter  effect  is  immediate.  The 
philosophy  of  the  one  is  that  the  extra  food  tends 
to  develop  fruit -buds  ;  the  philosophy  of  the  other 
is  that  the  extra  food  hastens  the  maturity  and 
increases  the  size  of  the  fruit  already  growing. 

Ringing  to  induce  fruit -bearing  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  special  practice.  It  is  generally  a  last 
resort, — not  because  ringing  injures  the  tree  (for 
it  usually  does  not),  but  because  there  are  more 
fundamental  and  general  means  of  promoting 
fruitfulness  (read  pages  163-166).  If  a  tree  here 
and  there  persists  in  being  barren,  ring  it  as  an 


RINGING  283 

experiment.  If  the  whole  plantation  is  fruitless, 
and  has  yet  received  all  the  care  which  legiti- 
mately makes  for  fruitfulness,  then  ring  all  the 
trees  ;  then  if  they  do  not  bear,  graft  them  or  cut 
them  down.  Ringing  is  sometimes  done  on  young 
trees  in  test  plantations  to  bring  them  early  into 
bearing,  but  young  trees  are  often  seriously  in- 
jured thereby. 

Ringing  is  usually  done  about  the  time  growth 
begins  to  start.  It  is  well  to  experiment  on  one 
or  two  branches  first.  Run  the  point  of  a  knife- 
blade  around  the  stem,  sinking  it  to  the  wood. 
This  will  usually  be  sufficient;  but  removing  an 
inch  of  bark  at  this  season  of  the  year  usually 
does  no  harm  if  the  tree  is  vigorous  (see  page  116) . 
I  have  known  rings  six  inches  wide,  on  apple 
trees,  to  heal  perfectly  in  a  single  season,  with  no 
dressings  applied;  but  such  wounds  are  unneces- 
sary and  dangerous. 

Ringing  to  increase  the  size  and  hasten  the 
maturity  of  fruits  is  such  a  well-known  practice 
that  reputable  societies  have  long  refused  to  award 
premiums  to  fruits  which  have  been  modified  in 
this  way.*  The  quality  usually  suffers.  It  is 
customary  to  make  the  ring  just  after  the  fruit  has 
set,  so  that  individual  specimens  may  be  selected. 
A  strip  of  bark  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide  is  often 
taken  out.  The  part  above  the  ring  should  bear 


*See,  for  example,  page  203,  4th  Ed.  "Horticulturist's  Rule-Book." 


284  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

an  abundance  of  foliage,  else  there  will  be  insuf- 
ficient food  to  support  the  fruit. 

Gaucher  remarks*  that  "the  width  of  the  bark 
to  be  removed  from  the  whole  circumference  of  the 
shoot  or  branch  varies  between  three  arid  five  milli- 
meters [a  millimeter  is  .039  inch,  hence  one -tenth 
to  two -tenths  inch].  Wider  than  this,  the  cut 
should  not  be  made,  as  otherwise  it  is  to  be  fgared 
the  wound  would  remain  open  all  summer  and 
bring  about  the  death  of  the  part  above  the  cut." 
"If  performed  extensively  upon  a  tree,"  writes 
Lindley,t  ringing  "is  very  apt,  if  not  to  kill  it, 
at  least  to  render  it  incurably  unhealthy;  for  if 
the  rings  are  not  suffiiciently  wide  to  cut  off  all 
communication  between  the  upper  and  lower  lips 
of  the  wound  they  produce  little  effect,  and  if 
they  are,  they  are  difficult  to  heal." 

In  1893  the  writer  made  a  symposium  t  on  ring- 
ing grapes,  most  of  which  is  here  reprinted: 

"Grapes  can  be  made  to  ripen  earlier  and  to  grow  larger 
if  the  vine  is  girdled  in  early  summer.  Many  fruit-plants 
have  been  girdled  or  ringed  for  centuries,  but  the  utility  of 
the  practice  is  still  in  dispute.  A  mere  narrow  girdle  or 
incision  around  the  trunk  may  cause  an  apple  or  pear  tree 
to  come  into  bearing,  and  as  the  wound  heals  over  in  a  few 
weeks,  probably  no  harm  can  result.  But  the  section  of 
bark  removed  from  the  grape  vine  is  so  large  that  the  wound 
never  heals,  and  the  whole  cane  is  cut  away  at  the  annual 
winter  pruning.  The  renewal  wood  of  the  vine  is  not 

*Die  Veredeluugen,  364. 

t  Theory  of  Horticulture,  Amer.  ed.  255. 

tAmerican  Gardening,  xiv.  74-80. 


RINGING    OF    GRAPES  285 

ringed,  however,  and  this  maintains  the  growth  of  the 
plant.  But  it  is  a  question  if  this  renewal  wood  is  sufficient 
to  keep  the  plant  strong  and  healthy.  Grape-ringing  is 
practiced  by  many  growers  in  the  Hudson  Kiver  Valley,  and 
mostly  with  good  success  so  far  as  the  precocity  and  en- 
largement of  grapes  is  concerned.  It  is  yet  a  question  if  it 
is  profitable  throughout  a  series  of  years  and  with  all  varie- 
ties of  grapes. 

"Girdling  or  ringing  various  fruit-trees  was  certainly 
practiced  by  the  Romans,  and  the  Agricultural  Society  of 
France  awarded  a  premium  to  Buchatt  about  a  century  and 
a  half  ago  for  a  method  of  ringing  the  grape-vine.  The 
practice,  both  with  grapes  and  other  fruits,  has  had  an  in- 
termittent history,  and  it  appears  never  to  have  become  an 
accepted  practice  for  any  number  of  years.  This  fact  is 
presumption  against  the  operation.  But  its  application  to 
the  American  vine  is  comparatively  recent.  The  first  valu- 
able experiments  made  with  the  ringing  of  the  grape  vine 
in  America  were  begun  in  1877,  at  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural College,  and  the  practice  has  been  employed  there 
more  or  less  continuously  since  that  time.  A  valuable  re- 
port was  made  upon  the  composition  of  ringed  grapes  in 
the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture  for 
1879. 

"The  status  of  grape-ringing  in  this  country  may  be 
expressed  as  follows:  Ringing  usually  hastens  maturity 
and  increases  size  of  fruit;  it  is  supposed  to  lessen  the 
quality  of  the  fruit ;  its  effect  upon  the  vine  is  not  clearly 
determined. 

"  The  quality  of  the  fruit  of  girdled  vines  has  been  made 
the  subject  of  much  chemical  inquiry  at  the  Massachusetts 
Experiment  Station,  and  as  this  point  is  an  exceedingly 
important  one,  and  is  under  much  discussion  at  present,  we 
have  reproduced  Dr.  Goessmann's  analyses  very  freely. 
The  following  table  is  from  Dr.  Goessmann's  report  for 
1889: 


286  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

Effects  of  Ringing  Grapes,  1889. 


NAME  AND  CONDITION. 

Date. 

Specific 
gravity. 

|d 

ll 

m  P 

Is 

.si 
it 

02 

Hartford  Prolific,  not  ringed.  . 
Hartford  Prolific,  ringed  
Wilder,  not  ringed  
Wilder,  ringed  
Delaware,  not  ringed  

1877. 
Sept.  3, 
Sept.  3, 
Sept.  3, 
Sept.  3, 
Sept.  4, 
Sept.  4, 
Sept.  4, 
Sept.  4, 
Sept.  6, 
Sept.  6, 
Sept.  6, 
Sept.  6, 
Sept.26, 
Sept.26. 
Oct.    5, 
Oct.    5, 

1.045 
1.065 
1.055 
1.075 
1.065 
1.075 
1.060 
1.075 
1.0625 
1.085 
1.045 
1.070 
1.065 
1.080 
1.075 
1.085 

Per  ct. 
12.85 
17.18 
15.41 
17.24 
15.75 
19.14 
16.60 
18.45 
16.60 
21.48 
13.46 
17.53 
17.63 
24.47 
20.92 

Per  ct. 
8.77 
12.50 
10.42 
14.70 
11.76 
15.15 
11.37 
16.31 
13.51 
15.63 
7.46 
13.88 
13.70 
19.61 
17.50 
17.86 

Per  ct. 
68.25 
72.76 
67.62 
85.26 
74.66 
79.16 
68.48 
87.42 
68.31 
72.76 
55.42 
79.18 
78.27 
80.13 
85.37 

Delaware,  ringed  
Agawam,  not  ringed  

Agawam,  ringed  
lona,  not  ringed  
lona,  ringed  
Concord,  not  ringed  

Concord,  ringed  
Concord,  not  ringed  

Concord  ringed 

Concord  not  ringed 

Concord,  ringed 

Date. 

100  PARTS  OF  GRAPES 
CONTAINED— 

i 

i    3 

S 

Concord,  not  ringed  

1889. 
Sept.23, 
Sept.23, 
Oct.    8, 
Oct.    8, 

84.69 
.42             83.00 
.53              84.51 
.37              82.69 

6.24 

8.13 
6.09 
8.50 

Concord  ringed 

"In  1888,  Dr.  Jabez  Fisher,  of  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  'the 
father  of  grape -growing  in  northern  Massachusetts,'  began 
experiments  in  connection  with  the  Massachusetts  College 


RINGING     GRAPES  287 

which  have  extended  to  the  present  time,  and  have  given 
invaluable  results.  The  following  analyses  of  grapes, 
which  grew  from  vines  girdled  by  him  July  5,  were  reported 
by  Dr.  Goessmann  in  Bulletin  7  of  the  Massachusetts 
Hatch  Experiment  Station  in  1890 : 

September  20.                             Ringed.  Not  ringed. 

Moisture  at  100°  C 83.00  per  ct.  84.69  per  ct. 

Ash  42  per  ct.  .     .    per  ct. 

Sugar    8.13  per  ct.  6.24  per  ct. 

Soda  solution  required  to  neutralize  acid 84.4    C.C.  75  C.C. 

October  1. 

Moisture  at  100°  C 82.69  per  ct.  85.51  per  ct. 

Ash    37  per  ct.  .53  per  ct. 

Sugar    8.50  per  ct.  6.09  per  ct. 

Soda  solution  required  to  neutralize  acid 50    CO.  48  C.C. 

"In  every  case  the  amount  of  sugar  was  greater  in  the 
ringed  grapes. 

"  The  experiments  at  the  Massachusetts  College  were,  on 
the  whole,  satisfactory,  and  seemed  to  show  that  ringing  is 
advisable,  and  that  it  does  not  injure  the  vine  ;  but  Dr. 
Fisher's  experiments  upon  a  larger  scale,  which  are  detailed 
below,  show  opposite  results." 

Dr.  Jabez  Fisher  on  Ringing 

"Knowing  that  a  number  of  cultivators  had  girdled  their 
grape  vines  for  two  or  three  years  with  satisfactory  results, 
and  noting  the  commendation  which  began  to  come  from  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  I  determined  to  ascertain 
how  much  value  there  might  be  in  the  method.  I  could  find 
no  account  of  any  careful  experiments  directed  to  this  end, 
and  having  three  acres  of  bearing  Concord  vines,  well  sit- 
uated for  comparative  experimentation,  I  decided  to  try 
girdling  a  few  of  them.  The  girdling  was  done  in  July, 


288  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

1888,  when  the  berries  were  about  one -fourth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  girdled  fruit  showed  color  August  24,  and 
the  ungirdled  September  2,  a  difference  of  nine  days.  A 
temperature  of  29°  on  the  morning  of  October  1  killed  all 
the  foliage  and  froze  the  ungirdled  berries,  leaving  the 
others  untouched,  but  though  the  girdled  ones  were  nearly 
ripe,  the  season  was  such  that  the  appreciable  amount 
of  sugar  they  contained  was  insufficient  to  give  them 
value  for  any  purpose,  and  the  entire  crop  was  left 
unharvested. 

"In  1889,  I  girdled,  July  2  to  5,  one  each  of  two  bearing 
arms  on  sixty  vines.  This  was  done  by  taking  out  a  ring 
of  bark  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide 
around  the  arm  near  the  trunk.  The  result  of  this 
operation  was  to  increase  by  30  or  40  per  cent  the 
size  of  the  berries  at  maturity,  and  they  showed  color 
August  12,  while  those  on  the  opposite  half  of  the  same 
vines  began  to  color  August  18,  six  days  later.  Sep- 
tember 20,  grapes  on  girdled  vines  were  fit  for  market, 
while  the  others  became  fully  ripe  October  1,  a  difference 
of  ten  days. 

"In  order  to  get  a  good  understanding  of  these  results 
and  their  value,  I  made  a  comparison  as  the  matter  then 
stood.  I  was  an  earnest  inquirer,  with  little  faith,  but  en- 
tirely open  to  conviction.  I  had  gained  ten  days  in  time, 
which,  in  an  unfavorable  season,  might  mean  the  difference 
between  success  and  failure.  In  addition  to  this  gain,  the 
berries  would  weigh  from  one -fourth  to  one -third  more 
from  their  increased  size,  and  this,  again,  would  add  to 
their  attractiveness  and  thus  help  their  sale.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  normal  amount  of  rain,  3.35  inches  during  Sep- 
tember, resulted  in  splitting  open  from  20  to  40  per  cent 
of  the  berries,  the  larger  proportion  on  the  heaviest  and 
best  clusters.  This  entailed  not  only  the  loss  of  these  split 
berries  but  also  the  time  required  in  cleaning  the  clusters 
for  market,  leaving  them  deformed  and  unsightly.  The 


THE    RINGING    OF    GRAPES  289 

berries  were  also  soft  and  did  not  bear  carriage  well,  and 
as  a  result  nothing  was  gained  in  price  from  their  earli- 
ness.  There  was  no  opportunity  to  institute  a  comparison 
of  quality  September  20,  as  at  that  time  those  not  girdled 
were  sour  and  unpalatable.  The  girdled  ones  seemed  to 
the  anxious  waiter  to  be  nearly  perfect,  but  in  five^or  six 
days  the  not -quite -ripe  ungirdled  ones  were  preferred,  and 
October  1,  when  the  latter  had  arrived  at  perfection,  the 
former  were  left  uneaten.  These  girdled  grapes  were  com- 
paratively flat,  insipid  and  unsatisfying.  They  were  quite 
as  sweet  to  the  taste  as  the  others  but  lacked  their  refresh- 
ing sparkle,  partly  from  seeming  to  be  less  acid  and  partly 
from  suggestive,  incipient  decay.  This  was  the  case  whether 
they  had  been  housed  September  20  or  left  on  the  vines 
until  October  1. 

"These  results  were  unsatisfactory.  I  repeated  the  experi- 
ment, using  for  the  purpose  the  same  vines  and  adding  to 
their  number.  In  this  I  was  largely  influenced  by  the  con- 
sideration that  if  we  should  have  a  dryer  September,  the 
objectionable  features  mentioned  would  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

"In  1890  I  girdled,  in  all,  vines  covering  nearly  an  acre. 
They  were  all  Concords,  trained  on  the  renewal  system, 
each  vine  having  two  bearing  arms  six  feet  long.  These 
arms  are  fruited  but  once,  and  replaced  every  year  by  new 
canes  grown  for  the  purpose,  upon  which  no  fruit  is  al- 
lowed while  growing.  Half  the  vines,  those  in  alternate 
rows,  had  only  one  arm  girdled.  The  others  were  girdled 
on  both  arms,  which  comprised  all  of  the  bearing  wood 
except  two,  three  or  four  central  canes  that  sprung  from 
the  trunk  bolow  the  arms.  The  operation  was  performed 
July  18  and  19.  The  girdled  grapes  showed  color  August 
17,  the  ungirdled  August  25.  Those  girdled  were  first  sent 
to  market  September  22,  and  the  others  October  3.  Sep- 
tember 22  specimens  of  each  were  sent  to  Dr.  C.  A.  Goess- 
mann,  of  the  Agricultural  College  at  Amherst,  Massachu- 


290  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

setts,  for  analysis,  and  I  give  here  the  percentage  amounts 
of  grape-sugar  and  tartaric  acid  respectively  : 

Ringed.         Not  ringed. 

Sugar 9.29  7.36 

Acid  (tartaric)  1.17  1.15 

"At  this  time  the  girdled  grapes  were  fairly  well  ripened, 
very  nearly  as  good  as  they  became  a  week  later,  and  bet 
ter  than  those  gathered  October  8.  They  were  sweet,  with 
about  the  right  porportion  of  acid,  while  those  not  girdled 
were  quite  sour  and  entirely  uneatable.  October  8,  samples 
were  gathered  of  each  and  again  analyzed,  with  the  results 
here  given: 

Ringed.         Not  ringed. 

Sugar 9.12  6.65 

Acid  (tartaric)    74  .51 

"At  this  date  the  girdled  grapes  had  lost  their  refreshing 
sparkle,  while  the  others  were  quite  satisfactory,  being 
sweet  and  having  sufficient  acid;  yet  the  analysis  tells  us 
that  while  the  former  had  lost  nearly  two  per  cent  of  sugar, 
together  with  more  than  36  per  cent  of  acid,  the  latter  had 
lost  nearly  ten  per  cent  of  the  sugar  that  they  contained 
September  22  when  uneatable,  but  had  also  lost  more  than 
55  per  cent  of  their  acid.  It  would  appear  from  these 
analyses  that  it  is  not  so  much  the  absolute  amount  of 
sugar  present  which  renders  fruit  palatable  by  its  sweet- 
ness, as  the  corresponding  absence  of  an  excess  of  accom- 
panying acid;  and  that  the  sense  of  taste  is  quite  unre- 
liable in  judging  of  the  amount  of  sugar  present. 

"The  proportionate  enlargement  of  the  berries  was  about 
the  same  as  in  1889,  and  notwithstanding  that  more  than 
five  inches  of  rain  fell  between  September  6  and  18,  yet, 
because  of  the  looseness  of  the  berries  on  the  clusters  and 
the  fine  weather  which  followed,  the  girdled  crop  ripened 
with  only  a  trifling  loss  by  splitting  of  berries,  so  that  it 
was  all  marketed  by  the  time  that  the  other  grapes  were 


RINGING    GRAPES  291 

ready  to  follow.  The  average  price  which  the  girdled 
grapes  sold  for  during  this  time  was  but  very  little  higher 
than  that  the  main  crop  commanded.  Concord  here  is  not 
early  enough  to  compete  with  grapes  raised  farther  south, 
and  it  brings  quite  as  good  prices  later. 

"An  important  circumstance  forced  itself  upon  my  atten- 
tion about  this  time.  Upon  these  vines,  half  of  which 
had  been  girdled,  it  was  found  that  the  fruit  upon  the  un- 
girdled  arm  colored  and  ripened  very  slowly.  It  was  so 
far  behind  that  [of  vines  not  treated,  and  so  general,  that 
the  conviction  could  not  be  avoided  that  the  girdling  of 
one -half  of  the  vine  had  correspondingly  retarded  the 
ripening  on  the  other  half.  So  prevalent  was  this  tardiness 
that  the  crop  of  the  average  vine  as  a  whole  was  less  val- 
uable than  where  girdling  was  not  practiced.  A  little  later 
it  was  found  that  upon  those  vines  that  had  both  arms 
girdled,  where  a  few  clusters  remained  upon  the  central 
shoots  not  treated,  these  clusters  did  not  ripen  so  as  to  be 
of  any  value.  They  remained  red  and  very  sour  to  the 
end.  This  was  the  point  where  light  began  to  show 
through.  I  had  by  the  operation  of  girdling  been  simply 
transferring  the  nutritive  pabulum  that  would  naturally 
have  gone  equally  to  all  parts  of  the  vine  to  a  portion  only. 
The  vine  possesses  in  its  sap  sufficient  material,  if  natur- 
ally elaborated,  to  ripen  its  entire  crop,  but  if  one  part  of 
it  is  caused  to  receive  an  excess,  there  must  be  a  corre- 
sponding deficiency  elsewhere.  Another  idea  was  suggested: 
whether  it  were  possible  for  girdled  vines  to  mature  and 
ripen  their  roots  so  as  to  be  in  condition  to  furnish  a  crop 
the  following  year.  It  might  be  that  as  the  bearing  vine 
was  all  cut  away  at  the  fall  pruning,  there  would  be  no 
use  for  the  corresponding  roots  [if  there  are  such!],  as  they 
would  die  under  any  circumstances.  The  new  or  renewal 
cane  was  not  girdled,  and  its  particular  roots  might  not  be 
affected  by  the  girdling  of  the  other  parts  of  the  vine. 

"Having   determined  that  the  gain  in  value  of   the  crop 


292  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

by  girdling  in  my  case  was  not  enhanced,  as  a  whole,  in 
any  material  degree,  and  being  in  possession  of  all  the 
conditions  for  ascertaining  the  after-effects  upon  the  vine 
and  its  roots,  I  decided  to  continue  the  operation  no  fur- 
ther, but  to  watch  the  results  in  the  season  of  1891.  As 
the  spring  opened  there  was  no  noticeable  difference  in  the 
size  or  appearance  of  the  canes,  whatever  their  previous 
treatment.  It  was  observed  that  the  buds  on  the  vines  that 
had  been  girdled  broke  quite  unevenly,  that  the  clusters  of 
fruit -buds  were  smaller  and  the  early  growth  of  the  new 
canes  less  vigorous  than  with  others.  This  state  of  affairs 
was  intensified  as  growth  progressed,  becoming  more  and 
more  apparent  as  the  season  advanced.  While  all  were 
entirely  healthy,  the  vines  which  had  been  girdled  in  1890 
showed  a  decided  lack  of  fruit  and  smaller  and  weaker 
canes  for  fruiting  in  1892.  A  favorable  autumn  made  up 
a  part  of  this  difference,  and  at  the  close  of  the  season  all 
the  vines  looked  well  and  the  grapes  were  thoroughly 
ripened. 

"In  harvesting  the  crop  I  kept  the  fruit  grown  upon  three 
different  plots  separate.  No.  1  had  never  been  girdled, 
No.  2  had  had  one-half  of  each  vine  girdled,  and  No.  3 
both  halves.  From  each  plot  120  vines  were  selected,  each 
lot  covering  about  11,500  feet.  All  were  contiguous  and 
fairly  comparable  with  each  other.  After  the  leaves  had 
fallen,  I  measured  with  calipers  the  diameter  of  each  new 
cane  of  these  360  vines,  720  canes  in  all,  at  half  their 
length,  three  feet,  from  the  trunk. 

"In  the  first  column  of  the  following  table,  100  is  assumed 
as  the  product  of  average  ungirdled  vines.  In  the  second 
and  1&ird  columns,  the  percentages  of  the  half-girdled  and 
full-girdled  vines,  respectively,  are  given.  The  difference 
between  the  whole  amount  of  fruit  and  that  denominated 
first-class  consisted  of  small  and  fragmentary  clusters, 
which  could  be  disposed  of  only  at  inferior  prices.  The 
quality  of  all  the  fruit  was  satisfactory. 


RINGING    GRAPES  293 

Not  ringed.  Half  ringed.  Full  ringed. 

Total  fruit 100  83  62 

First-class 100  77  59 

Diameter  of  new  canes 100  97  87 

"  I  cannot  avoid  the  conclusion  that  wherever  a  grape  vine 
will  fairly  ripen  fruit  by  natural  processes,  girdling  is  an 
operation  that  cannot  be  commended,  certainly  not  for  its 
commercial  results.  Its  disadvantages  are  greater  than  its 
advantages.  The  fruit  possesses  no  attractions  for  the 
connoisseur,  and  one  year  or  more  must  be  given  the  vine 
to  recover  from  its  effects.  It  is  possible  that  in  some  sit- 
uations or  circumstances  where  the  seasons  are  not  long 
enough  to  ripen  the  fruit  naturally,  a  crop  might  be  saved 
by  girdling  if  the  grower  were  willing  to  devote  the  suc- 
ceeding season  to  generous  feeding,  without  production  of 
fruit,  in  order  to  fit  the  vine  for  a  crop  in  alternate  years. 
I  doubt  somewhat  if  even  this  is  feasible,  as  my  vines 
girdled  in  1890  have  not  yet  full  recovered." 


Hinging  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley 

"  For  many  years,  I  know  not  how  long,  it  has  been  known 
that  by  obstructing  the  return  flow  of  sap  in  the  part  of  a 
grape  vine  bearing  fruit,  the  size  of  the  fruit  would  be  in- 
creased, and  it  would  color  abnormally  early.  This  could 
be  attained  by  removing  a  ring  of  bark,  or  binding  the 
branch  tightly  with  a  wire.  It  is  only  within  the  last  decade 
that  this  knowledge  has  been  turned  to  practical  account  in 
America.  Some  twelve  or  fifteen  years  ago,  grape-growers 
in  the  Hudson  River  Valley  would  occasionally  exhibit%t  the 
fairs  enormous  specimens  of  grapes.  That  the  vines  produc- 
ing them  had  been  girdled  was  frequently  charged,  sometimes 
denied  ;  and  if  admitted,  it  was  with  shamefacedness,  and 
the  specimens  were  generally  ruled  out  of  the  competition. 
A  little  later  a  few  vines  were  girdled,  and  their  product 


294  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

put  on  the  market.  The  practice  grew  annually,  until  now 
a  large  proportion  of  the  vineyardists  of  the  region  girdle 
more  or  less  vines.  A  prejudice  against  the  practice  ex- 
isted in  the  minds  of  many  who  had  never  experimented 
in  this  line,  and  it  was  charged  that  the  fruit  of  vines 
thus  treated  was  only  fit  to  sell,  that  the  method  was  de- 
structive to  the  permanent  value  of  the  vines,  and  was 
fraudulent  and  ruinous. 

"That  some  varieties  of  grapes,  when  girdled,  produce 
much  larger  fruit  more  than  a  week  earlier,  without  ma- 
terially impairing  its  quality,  is  a  fairly  well-established  fact. 
About  two  or  three  years  ago  one  of  the  state  experiment 
stations  is  said  to  have  reported  [see  previous  pages]  that 
girdling  increased  the  amount  of  sugar  in  the  fruit,  improved 
its  quality,  increased  its  size,  and  hastened  its  ripening. 
This  statement  encouraged  the  practice. 

"  That  girdling  destroys  the  flavor  of  some  varieties  has 
been  well  shown  ;  that  others  when  girdled  never  seem  to 
ripen,  or  in  other  words  remain  sour,  is  also  true.  'A 
girdled  Catawba  rivals  a  cucumber-pickle  for  acidity,  and  a 
Delaware  so  treated  never  gets  sweet.'  Empire  State 
loses  all  character  when  girdled,  while  Martha  and  Wyom- 
ing Eed  suffer  no  loss  in  quality.  Concord  and  Champion 
are  girdled  freely  without  bad  effects.  Worden  and  Lady 
sometimes  crack  badly  when  girdled  ;  both  are  very  thin- 
skinned  varieties.  As  a  general  rule,  the  more  delicate - 
flavored  grapes,  especially  if  they  contain  foreign  blood, 
deteriorate  most  by  girdling. 

"  The  operation  is  a  severe  tax  on  the  vine,  particularly  in 
a  dry  season.  Therefore,  over-bearing  must  not  be  al- 
lowed. When  a  vine  too  heavily  loaded  is  girdled,  it  will 
stop  growing  at  about  the  time  for  the  fruit  to  begin  to  color, 
and  the  fruit  will  not  ripen.  It  is  the  opinion  of  a  careful 
observer,  who  has  practiced  girdling  the  last  five  seasons, 
that  25  per  cent  less  fruit  should  be  left  on  a  girdled  arm 
than  on  the  same  arm  if  left  ungirdled.  Some  vineyardists 


RINGING    GRAPES  295 

girdle  the  same  vine  only  every  other  year;  others  girdle 
two  of  the  four  arms  grown  in  the  Kniffin  system  of  train- 
ing. All  agree  that  heavy  fertilizing  is  necessary  to  keep 
up  the  vigor  of  girdled  vines.  All  weak -looking  vines  are 
left  ungirdled. 

"  The  time  for  girdling  is  shortly  after  the  fruit  is  formed, 
and  when  the  young  grape  is  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  It 
is  done  by  removing  a  ring  of  bark  nearly  an  inch  broad 
from  the  arm  or  branch  of  last  year's  wood.  One  or  two 
shoots  of  the  present  season's  growth  should  be  left  back  of 


206.     Grape  ringing-knife. 

the  girdle  for  renewal,  or  for  the  next  season's  bearing  wood. 
A  knife  is  made  specially  for  this  purpose ;  its  form  is  shown 
in  the  illustration  (Fig.  206) .  It  consists  of  two  hooked 
blades,  attached  to  a  wooden  handle,  parallel  to  each  other 
and  about  seven -eighths  of  an  inch  apart.  The  inner  part 
of  each  blade  is  filed  to  a  cutting  edge.  A  chisel -shaped 
knife  is  fastened  on  the  back  of  the  handle.  In  operation 
the  blades  are  hooked  over  the  vine  and  the  handle  passed 
around  it,  at  the  same  time  holding  the  blades  firmly  on  the 
vine;  this  will  cut  two  lines  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  apart 
through  the  bark.  The  knife  is  then  lifted  from  the  vine, 
turned  over,  and  with  the  chisel -shaped  part  the  ring  of 
bark  is  severed  and  lifted  from  its  place.  The  whole  opera- 
tion is  performed  in  a  few  seconds. 

"  The  grapes  should  be  removed  from  the  shoots  left  grow- 
ing back  of  the  girdle,  as  it  is  desirable  that  these  shoots 
should  make  a  vigorous  growth  of  wood  for  bearing  fruit 
the  next  season.  The  vine  beyond  the  girdle  makes  a  great 
growth  of  wood  and  fruit,  and  the  edge  of  the  girdled  spot 
calluses  and  partly  overgrows  the  naked  wood.  Shortly 


296  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

after  the  fruit  has  been  harvested  the  girdled  part  is  sev- 
ered from  the  vine  for  the  benefit  of  next  «year's  bearing 
wood. 

"  Whether  girdling  grape  vines  is  a  profitable  operation  or 
not  can  be  determined  only  by  a  succession  of  carefully 
conducted  experiments.  Its  real  effect  on  the  quality  of 


207.     The  incisions.     The  bark  removed       The 
cane  in  the  fall. 

the  fruit  of  those  varieties  which  are  best  adapted  to  it  is, 
as  yet,  not  fully  determined.  Whether  two  vines,  with 
precisely  the  same  treatment,  except  that  one  is  girdled 
annually,  will  for  a  series  of  years  show  a  difference  of 
profit  in  favor  of  the  girdled  one,  is  only  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture. The  effect  of  girdling  on  grape-juice  for  wine- 
making  is  also  yet  to  be  tested.  All  these  are  subjects  for 
investigation  at  our  experiment  stations. 

"The  accompanying  picture  (Fig.  207)  shows  the  effect  of 
girdling  in  augmenting  the  size  of  the  cane  above  the  girdle, 
and  also  the  general  shape  of  the  wound."—  W.  D.  B.,  Middle 
Hope,  Orange  County,  N.  Y. 

From  John  Burroughs,  Hudson  Eiver  Valley. 

"My  opinion  of  the  practice  of  girdling  grape  vines  is, 
that  on  the  whole,  it  is  poor  business.  Grape -growers,  I 


RINGING    GRAPES  297 

fear,  are  killing  the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  egg.  If  all 
take  to  girdling,  where  is  the  advantage?  It  is  like  the 
crowd  all  getting  up  on  chairs  at  the  show;  what  better  off 
are  they?  Girdling  hastens  the  coloring  up  of  most  varieties 
of  grapes,  but  hastens  the  ripening  very  little,  while  it  dis- 
tinctly injures  the  quality  of  certain  kinds.  Girdled  Dela- 
wares  are  uneatable.  People  who  buy  them  probably  lose 
their  appetite  for  Delawares  for  some  time.  They  are  as 
sour  as  vinegar.  Bed  grapes  seem  to  be  injured  by  girdling 
more  than  black  ones.  Girdled  Niagaras  are  large  and 
pleasing  to  look  upon,  but  their  quality  is  not  equal  to  the 
ripe  ungirdled  fruit.  Moore  Diamond  is  ruined  by  girdling. 
Wordens  are  not  increased  in  size  by  girdling,  but  they 
color  four  or  five  days  earlier.  They  are,  however,  much 
more  liable  to  crack,  as  are  all  other  girdled  kinds.  Fruit 
on  a  girdled  Moore  Early  is  larger  and  earlier,  and  the  qual- 
ity is  not  much  injured,  but  it  may  crack  badly.  A  vine 
heavily  loaded  will  not  ripen  its  fruit  any  earlier  by  being 
girdled.  Girdle  other  kinds  if  you  will,  but  when  you  come 
to  the  Delaware,  hands  off!" 


PRUNING   TOOLS 

It  is  often  said  that  all  pruning  should  be  done 
with  a  pocket  knife,  meaning  thereby  that  the 
pruning  should  receive  such  constant  attention 
that  the  removal  of  large  branches  is  unnecessary. 
It  is  even  said  that  the  only  safe  pruning  tool 
is  the  thumb  and  finger,  which  should  be  used 
to  pinch  out  the  objectionable  growths  as  soon 
as  they  start.  Theoretically,  these  statements  may 
be  true,  but  practically  they  are  of  little  value, 
because  it  is  impossible  for  any  person  who  has 


298  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

more  than  a  few  plants  to  give  such  close  atten- 
tion to   each  one,  and   it   is  often   impossible  to 


208.     Pruning-knife. 

tell  which  branches  should  be  removed  until 
they  have  assumed  their  permanent  character- 
istics. 


209.     Priming-shears. 

The  most  essential  pruning  tools  are  three, 
a  heavy  knife  (Fig.  208),  hand  shears  (Figs. 
209,  210),  and  a  narrow  saw  (as  e,  Fig.  211). 


210.    Pruning-shears. 

Aside  from  these  types,  there  are  various  patterns 
of  chisels  and  hooks. 

Various  characteristic   pruning  tools  are  shown 


211.     Various  pruning  tools. 


300  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

in  Fig.  211.  Those  marked  a,  d,  e  are  common 
and  very  useful  kinds  of  saws.  Those  with 
teeth  on  both  edges  have  the  advantage  of  keep- 
ing longer  in  repair  and  of  allowing  relatively 
fine  and  coarse  work ;  but  in  crotches  the  saw 
is  likely  to  injure  the  limb  which  it  is  desired 
to  save.  A  slight  curve  to  the  blade  (as  in  a) 
allows  the  operator  to  make  a  very  forcible  draw 
cut  with  the  concave  side.  The  back- saw,  c,  is 
very  useful  for  small  limbs  and  for  grafting,  for 
the  stiff  back  allows  the  use  of  a  thin  plate  and 
consequently  of  small  teeth  ;  and  the  tool  leaves 
a  very  smooth  wound.  Its  disadvantage  is  that 
it  is  too  broad  to  be  worked  in  crotches  and 
other  crowded  places.  Saw  ~b  is  known  as  an 
orange -tree  pruner.  The  tool  /  is  one  of  the 
handiest  and  most  efficient  of  all  pruning  saws, 
notwithstanding  its  clumsy  appearance.  The 
blade  turns  at  both  ends,  allowing  it  to  be 
used  at  any  angle  with  reference  to  the  frame 
and  adapting  it  to  the  most  constricted  places. 
Tool  g  is  a  combination  of  saw  and  chisel.  It 
is  mounted  on  a  pole,  and  the  chisel  is  operated 
with  a  mallet  applied  to  the  end  of  the  handle. 
Tool  h  is  also  mounted  on  a  long  handle,  and  is 
a  combination  of  a  saw  and  a  shear  tool.  Long- 
handled  tools  are  of  minor  value,  particularly 
in  orchards,  for  the  operator  should  be  very 
close  to  his  work.  They  are  useful  in  taking 
out  limbs  here  and  there  and  for  use  on  orna- 


PRUNING    TOOLS 


301 


mental  trees  which  are  difficult  to  climb.  The 
Waters7  tree-pruner, — which  is  very  useful  for 
heading -in  outlying  limbs, — works  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  knife  in  h,  Fig.  211. 
A  tool  of  the  same  principle,  but 
looking  upward  instead  of  down- 
ward, is  shown  in  Fig.  212. 

Other  shear  tools  are  shown 
in  Figs.  209,  210,  213,  214,  215, 
216.  An  exchange  describes  the 
tool  shown  in  Fig.  216  as  follows: 
"Anyone  can  make  pruning  shears 
like  those  here  illustrated  for  his 
own  use.  The  movable  shear, 
to  which  the  pitman  rod  is  at- 
tached, does  most  of  the  cutting. 
Both  shears  are  made  of  thin, 
hardened  steel.  From  the  bolt- 
hole  in  the  movable  shear,  a  rod 
(the  pitman)  longer  or  shorter,  to 
correspond  with  the  length  of  the 
pole  used,  runs  to  the  lever  shown 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cut.  In 
pruning  trees  and  vines,  the 
handle  of  the  lever  is  raised, 
which  forces  up  the  bar  and 
opens  the  jaws  of  the  shears.*  *  212.  A  gooa 
*  *  The  jaws  of  the  shears t001  for  heading-in 

outstretching  limbs 

must  be  ground  at  an  angle  some-  and  removing  small 
what   more  acute   than  that   com-  branches. 


302  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

monly  employed  for  tailors7  shears.  The  highest 
part  of  each  bevel  must  come  against  the  bevel 
upon  which  it  acts." 

A  pruning  chisel  is  shown  at  </,  Fig.  211. 
Many  persons  prefer  a  chisel  to  all  other  tools, 
because  it  allows  the  operator  to  stand  on  the 
ground ;  but,  as  said  above,  such  implements 
have  only  special  uses.  A  two-inch  or  three -inch 
carpenter's  chisel  may  be  mounted  on  a  stiff  pole; 


213.     Hedge-shears. 

or  a  chisel  may  be  made  from  a  large  file  by 
a  local  blacksmith,  and,  in  this  case,  a  hook  may 
be  formed  on  the  side  with  which  to  draw  the 
brush  from  the  tree.  Small  branches  may  be 
severed  by  means  of  a  simple  thrust  of  the  tool, 
and  large  ones  are  cut  by  striking  the  end  of 
the  handle  with  a  mallet.  Tools  of  this  type  are 
on  the  market. 

Another  tool  with  a  chisel -like  edge  is  shown 
in  Fig.  217.  This  is  an  European  tool,  and  is 
used  in  pruning  forests.  Des  Cars  describes  it  as 
follows:*  "The  best  tool  for  the  purpose  is 


*"A  Treatise  on    Pruning    Forest    and    Ornamental    Trees,"  Amer. 
Ed.,  22. 


PRUNING    TOOLS 


303 


one  which  has  been  used  for  many  years  in 
Holland,  and  which  has  lately  been  improved 
byCourval  (Fig.  217).  It  weighs  2  Ibs.  12  oz., 
to  3  Ibs.  6  oz.,  or  more,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  workman  [and  is  sixteen  inches  long] . 
The  blade  is  reinforced  in  the  middle  to  increase 
its  strength  and  concentrate  the  weight.  In  the 
north  of  France  this  tool  is 
generally  hung  to  an  iron 
hook  attached  to  a  leather 
strap  buckled  round  the 
workman's  waist,  who  is  thus 
left  perfectly  free  in  his 
movements." 

Another  European  device  is 
the  dendroscope  (Fig.  218). 
This  is  used  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  reduce  the  top  of  a 
large  tree  to  a  given  form. 
A  figure  of  the  desired  form 
is  cut  in  a  piece  of  card- 
board, and  a  thread  or  wire 
is  stretched  across  the  open- 
ing from  top  to  bottom.  The 
operator  holds  the  card  be- 
fore his  eye,  bringing  the 
wire  against  the  center  of 
the  trunk,  and  walks  towards  the  tree  until 
the  bottom  of  the  opening  strikes  the  ground 
line.  He  can  then  make  a  mental  note  of 


214.      Two-hand 
pruning  shears. 


304  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

the  places   to  cut  the   branches  in  order  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  outline. 

For   removing  the  canes  from   bush -fruits  (as 
raspberries,  gooseberries),  roses  and  other  shrubs, 


215.     Powerful  pruning  shears.     (The  Myti- 
cuttah,  an  English  implement.) 


various  hooks  and  spuds  are  useful.     Three  styles 
of  these  are  shown  in  Figs.  219,  220,  221. 

There  are  also  many  devices  for  cutting  the 
runners  from  strawberry  plants,  one  thrust  of 
the  implement  leaving  the  hill  in  proper  size  and 
shape.  One  of  these  is  represented  in  Fig.  222, 


216,     Home-made  shears. 


I 
218.    Dendroscope. 


219    Bush  hook. 
T 


220.    Bramble  hook.  221.    Bush  spud. 


306 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


and  is  described  as  follows:*  "E.  W.  Reid  de- 
scribed an  implement  for  trimming  strawberry 
plants  in  hills,  which  is  much  used  in  eastern 
Ohio.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  heavy  sheet -iron 
about  twenty -eight  to  thirty  inches  long  and  six 
inches  wide,  the  ends  riveted  to  form  a  cylinder 
about  nine  inches  in  diameter  and  six  inches  long. 

Attached  to  one  end  of 
the  cylinder,  and  on  op- 
posite   sides,    are      two 
pieces      of      strap -iron 
which  extend  about  six 
inches  beyond    the    end 
of      the     cylinder      and 
join  011  the  line  of  the 
axis     to    a     handle    of 
wrought -iron      with      a 
wooden    cross-piece    at 
the  top,  to   be    grasped 
in     using      the     implement. 
The  distance  from  the  lower 
edge  of  the   cylinder  to    the 
top  of  the  handle  should  be 
about  three  feet  four  inches, 
so  that  the  workman  will  not 

222.     Strawberry         have    to    stoop     in    using     it. 

pruner.  Instead  of    a  cross-bar    the 

handle  shown  at  the  right  may  be  used.      With 


*W.  S.  Devol,  reporting  meeting  of  O.  Hort.  Soc.  in  American  Garden, 
xii.,  175. 


PRUNING    TOOLS  307 

this  it  is  easier  to  direct  the  blows,  and  the  use  of 
the  implement  is  less  tiresome,  because  the  posi- 
tion of  the  hands  can  be  changed.  The  projecting 
handle  should  be  about  the  same  distance  above 
the  cutting  cylinder  as  the  cross- 
bars, and  the  perpendicular  pro- 
jection should  reach  twelve  or  fif- 
teen inches  higher.  The  edge  of 
the  implement  should  be  kept 
very  sharp,  to  prevent  pulling 
and  disturbing  the  plants  when 
using  it.  By  walking  between 
two  rows  and  setting  the  imple- 
ment down  over  two  hills  on 
one  side,  and  then  two  on  the  other,  the  runners 
can  be  trimmed  off  very  rapidly,  and  the  plants 
be  kept  in  neat,  round  hills.  The  implement  ap- 
pears to  be  a  valuable  thing  for  facilitating 
the  work  of  the  strawberry  grower." 

A  recent  writer  describes  the  following  mask 
(Fig.  223)  to  protect  the  face  while  pruning:*  "I 
am  pruning,  and  for  the  past  few  years  have 
found  great  comfort  in  a  mask  over  the  face  to 
keep  off  the  sun  and  wind.  It  often  makes  the 
difference  between  being  able  to  stay  at  work  or 
not  during  some  days  at  this  time  of  year.  I 
wear  spectacles,  and  to  prevent  the  breath  freez- 
ing on  them,  use  a  stiffish  wire  hooked  behind 


*C.  T.,  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker,  March  20,  1897. 


308  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

each  ear  and  bent  around  close  to  the  face,  just 
clearing  the  eyes,  and  over  the  nose  like  a  spec- 
tacle frame  ;  on  this  is  run  a  thick  piece  of  cotton, 
covering  the  nose  and  face  to  the  beard,  and 
short  enough  not  to  catch  the  breath.  A  rather 
loose  tape  from  the  corners  under  the  chin  keeps 
the  wind  from  getting  under,  and  turning  it  up 
over  the  eyes." 

Balmer  describes*  the  following  device  in  which 
to  burn  the  prunings  :  "A  matter  in  connection 
with  pruning,  and  one  which  should  always  have 
the  closest  attention,  is  that  of  gathering  up  the 
prunings.  These  are  oftentimes  the  harbor  of 
aphis  eggs,  and  the  eggs  of  other  injurious  in- 
sects, and  if  left  lying  on  the  ground  too  long 
these  eggs  may  hatch  and  do  a  great  amount  of 
damage.  Our  practice  is  to  rake  up  the  prunings 
into  bunches  and  load  them  into  a  wagon,  to  be 
hauled  away  and  burned.  In  parts  of  California 
where  they  have  very  large  orchards,  a  kind  of 
portable  furnace  is  used  ;  this  is  a  large  sheet- 
iron  receptacle  mounted  on  four  wheels,  with  an 
iron  frame.  In  the  center  of  the  iron  trough  is  a 
grate.  On  this  a  fire  is  lighted,  and  the  prunings, 
having  been  previously  raked  with  a  horse -rake 
into  rows,  are  loaded  on  to  this  fire.  A  horse  is 
hitched  to  this  portable  furnace,  and  the  whole 
orchard  gone  over,  the  fire  being  kept  up  all  the 

*Bull.  25,  Wash.  Exp.  Sta. 


PRUNING  APPLE  TREES          309 

while.  This  is  said  to  work  well  in  vineyards, 
but  may  be  too  cumbersome  for  our  Washington 
orchards.  At  all  events,  see  to  it  that  the  prun- 
ings  are  burned  and  the  ashes  returned  to  the 
orchard." 

REMARKS    ON   SPECIFIC  PLANTS 

Apple 

The  apple  tree  is  a  vigorous  plant,  and  should 
be  pruned  every  year.  In  very  cold  climates, — 
as  in  northern  New  England,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota,— it  is  generally  considered  to  be  advisable  to 
delay  the  pruning  until  the  cold  weather  is  past 
(pages  143,  184),  but  in  other  regions  pruning  in 
late  winter  is  the  rule.  Yet  the  apple  tree,  like 
other  fruits,  may  be  pruned  in  early  spring  or 
summer.  The  average  height  at  which  the  limbs 
of  apple  trees  are  started  is  about  four  feet  from 
the  ground ;  but  the  height  must  be  governed  by 
climate,  variety,  and  the  personal  ideals  of  the 
grower.  From  three  to  five  limbs  should  form 
the  scaffold  of  the  top.  When  the  general  form 
of  the  top  has  been  well  established, — by  three 
or  four  years  of  thoughtful  attention, — the  sub- 
sequent pruning  consists  mostly  in  removing  all 
superfluous  limbs  in  the  center  of  the  top, — that 
is,  those  which  run  crosswise  the  top,  which  rub 
other  limbs,  or  which  tend  to  make  certain  parts 
of  the  top  too  thick.  Avoid  pruning  all  the  side 


310  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

branches  off  the  main  limbs,  else  these  limbs  will 
become  too  long  and  pole -like.  There  are  no 
particular  precautions  to  be  observed  in  the  prun- 
ing of  an  apple  tree.  For  spurs  and  buds,  see 
Figs.  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17, 
18,  41,  62,  63.  For  trees,  see  Figs.  123,  126,  127, 
133,  134,  145,  146,  147,  154,  155,  156,  161,  162, 
163,  167,  168,  169,  170,  171,  172,  173,  174,  175, 
176,  177,  178,  189,  190,  205  (dwarf). 

Apricot 

The  apricot  is  treated  in  essentially  the  same 
way  as  the  plum  (which'  see) ;  but  since  some 
of  its  fruit  is  borne  on  the  last  year's  shoots, 
heading -in  may  thin  the  fruit.  For  spurs  and 
buds,  see  Figs.  38,  39,  40,  42,  57,  58.  For  trees, 
see  Figs,  182,  183. 

The  following  directions  for  the  pruning  of 
apricots  in  California  are  by  J.  B.  Neff,*  and 
they  may  be  applied — with  minor  modifications — 
to  other  stone  fruits  and  to  other  regions: 

"Trees  of  four  to  five  feet  in  height  are  preferable  for 
planting,  and  when  planted  should  be  trimmed  to  a  single 
stem  and  cut  off  at  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground. 
These  will  throw  out  shoots  vigorously  and  frequently  two 
or  three  shoots  from  one  bud.  These  shoots  should  be 
thinned  out,  leaving  not  more  than  four  or  five,  no  two 
of  which  should  come  from  one  bud,  nor  be  directly  oppo- 
site. The  first  shoot  should  start  twelve  inches  from  the 

*Before  Farmers'  Institute,  Anaheim,  Cal.,  Apr.  9,  1897. 


PRUNING    THE    APRICOT  311 

ground,  the  others  in  such  a  manner  as  to  divide  the  space 
and  make  the  branches  balance,  leaving  the  top  shoot  to 
form  the  central  part  of  the  tree.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
go  over  the  trees  several  times  the  first  year  to  remove 
shoots  that  may  start  where  not  wanted,  but  no  general 
heading-back  should  be  done,  as  it  tends  to  dwarf  the 
tree;  though  if  some  of  the  limbs  are  making  an  over- 
growth they  should  be  pinched -back  to  keep  the  head 
balanced. 

"The  pruning  for  the  second  year  should  be  done  in 
January,  as  the  tree  will  not  be  dormant  until  then,  if  it 
has  been  kept  in  a  thrifty  condition.  The  first  year's 
growth  should  be  cut  back  to  within  five  to  ten  inches  of 
the  body  of  the  tree,  and  all  forks  should  be  cut  out,  even 
if  it  necessitates  forming  a  new  head,  as  it  is  much  better 
to  lose  some  growth  on  a  young  tree  than  to  take  the  risk 
of  splitting  down  when  the  tree  begins  to  bear  fruit. 

"When  the  shoots  start  for  the  second  year's  growth, 
take  off  all  that  come  on  the  under  side  of  the  limbs  and 
thin  to  one,  two  or  three,  as  may  be  needed  to  balance 
the  tree,  bearing  in  mind  that  an  apricot  tree  always 
inclines  toward  the  coast  breezes  in  this  locality.  The 
second  year  will  require  much  more  attention  than  the  first 
year,  in  order  to  keep  off  suckers  and  all  lateral  growth 
that  may  start  on  the  under  side  of  the  new  limbs,  the 
object  being  to  make  the  limbs  grow  as  near  upright  as 
possible.  The  remark  on  heading -back  holds  good  for  the 
second  year  also. 

"The  trees  will  become  dormant  earlier  the  second  year 
than  they  did  the  first,  but  should  not  be  trimmed  earlier 
than  December  and  a  month  later  is  preferable,  as  the 
ends  of  the  limbs  are  not  exposed  to  the  drying  winds  so 
long  before  the  sap  begins  to  flow  and  consequently  will 
heal  over  better.  The  second  year's  growth  should  now 
be  cut  back  to  within  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  of  the  old 
wood,  except  the  central  stem,  which  may  be  left  twenty- 


312  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

four  to  thirty  inches  long,  depending  on  the  number  of 
laterals  it  may  have  thrown  out. 

"When  the  new  shoots  start  they  should  again  be 
thinned  down  to  two  or  three  on  each  limb  and  all  taken 
off  that  tend  to  turn  down  or  out  at  right  angles.  The 
trees  will  need  to  be  gone  over  about  three  times  before 
July,  to  remove  suckers  and  lateral  growth  that  may  start 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  limbs,  as  the  tendency  in  the 
third  year  is  to  make  an  immense  growth  of  downward 
laterals,  and  these  must  be  taken  off  so  as  to  develop 
wood  that  is  to  be  left  for  fruit.  If  the  orchard  is  on 
good  land  and  has  been  properly  irrigated  and  cultivated, 
the  trees  should  now  be  large  enough  to  begin  to  yield 
fruit. 

"The  object  in  trimming  during  the  first  two  years  and 
the  first  half  of  the  third  year  has  been  to  grow  a  vig- 
orous, upright  tree  with  strong  limbs,  capable  of  carrying 
a  heavy  load  of  large  fruit,  and  to  get  the  fruit  as  close 
to  the  body  of  the  tree  as  possible. 

"There  will  be  a  few  specimens  of  fruit  the  third  year, 
and  as  soon  as  these  are  gathered  the  trees  should  be 
summer  pruned  for  the  first  time,  care  being  taken  that 
the  land  shall  have  been  allowed  to  become  moderately 
dry,  so  that  the  trees  may  be  partially  dormant.  If  the 
downward  growth  of  the  laterals  has  been  kept  cut  off, 
all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  cut  off  about  one- 
half  of  all  this  season's  growth  all  over  the  tree,  using 
the  same  judgment  as  before  with  reference  to  prevail- 
ing winds  and  symmetry  of  tree.  If  this  is  properly 
done  and  water  at  once  turned  on  the  orchard,  a  new 
growth  will  be  made  and  the  fruit  buds  for  next  year 
fully  developed. 

"The  only  pruning  necessary  in  the  following  winter 
will  be  to  take  out  any  cross  limbs  and  sprouts  that  may 
have  been  overlooked  in  the  summer. 

"After   the    trees  begin   to    produce   regular    crops   they 


PRUNING    APRICOT    AND    CHERRY  313 

will  not  grow  so  vigorously,  and  the  numerous  prunings 
of  the  first  three  years  will  not  be  necessary,  as  almost 
all  can  be  done  by  summer  pruning  until  the  trees  get 
so  old  that  they  need  the  old  wood  taken  out.  This  can 
be  more  readily  done  without  damage  to  the  trees  where 
from  twenty -four  to  thirty  limbs  are  grown,  than  in  the 
old  method  of  leaving  only  eight  or  ten  large  limbs. 
When  it  becomes  necessary  to  take  out  old  wood — as  the 
best  fruit  grows  on  new  wood — a  few  limbs  can  be  taken 
out  each  year  until  a  full  top  of  new  wood  is  again  made." 

Cherry 

Remarks  on  plum  and  apricot  will  apply  to 
cherry.  For  spurs  and  buds,  see  Figs.  31,  32,  33. 
For  trees,  see  Figs.  3,  4,  179,  180,  181,  188. 

Of  the  pruning  of  the  sweet  cherry,  Powell 
writes  as  follows:* 

"The  cherry  orchard  will  require  little  pruning  after  the 
first  two  or  three  years,  and  before  that  time  the  tree  can  be 
made  to  assume  any  desired  form.  I  believe,  however,  that 
in  general  the  pruning  should  be  such  as  to  give  the  tree  a 
low,  spreading  head,  with  a  trunk  about  four  feet  high,  and 
with  the  top  built  out  on  three  to  five  main  arms.  We  have 
pursued  this  method  on  the  Windsor  and  other  varieties,  and 
the  trees,  instead  of  growing  in  the  usual  spire-shape, 
assume  an  apple-tree  form.  After  the  first  two  or  three 
years  no  pruning  is  needed,  except  to  remove  dead  branches, 
and  to  keep  superfluous  branches  from  intercrossing.  The 
advantages  gained  from  this  form  of  tree  are  of  great  im- 
portance. First,  the  body  of  the  cherry  tree  is  less  likely  to 
be  injured  from  the  hot  sun,  which  causes  it,  especially  on 
the  side  of  the  prevailing  wind,  to  crack  and  split,  exude 


*G.  H.  Powell,  Bull.  98,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 


314  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

sap,  and  finally  to  die.  The  low,  spreading  head  shades  the 
trunk  and  large  branches,  and  obviates  this  difficulty  to  a 
great  extent.  In  western  New  York  this  trouble  is  not  so 
serious  as  it  is  on  the  black  lands  farther  west.  A  second 
advantage,  of  equal  or  greater  importance,  lies  in  the  fact 
that,  if  allowed  to  grow  upright,  the  limbs  reach  the  height 
of  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  twenty -five  years,  making  it  very 
difficult  to  gather  the  fruit  and  to  spray  the  trees.  The 
bearing  branches  are  always  found  towards  the  extremities 
of  the  limbs,  and  the  time  which  men  lose  in  going  up  and 
down  long  ladders  is  of  no  small  account  to  the  fruit  - 


Orange 

"The  best  form  of  tree  is  a  low -headed,  com- 
pact growth.  It  is  secured  by  trimming  the 
young  tree,  at  transplanting,  to  a  straight  shoot 
of  four  to  six  feet  in  height,  and  tying  it  to  a 
stake  to  give  it  support  and  straightness.  All 
shoots  from  above  the  bud  are  permitted  to  grow 
to  shade  the  trunk  and  to  stiffen  it,  though  a  too 
strong  lateral  may  be  pinched.  The  trunk  must 
be  protected  from  the  sun  by  wrapping  with  paper 
or  something  of  the  kind,  until  the  leaves  do  that 
service.  The  lower  branches  will  bear  the  first 
fruit,  and  as  the  tree  attains  age,  they  will  stop 
growing  and  can  be  removed.  Thus  the  head  of 
the  tree  is  raised  gradually,  and  space  is  given  for 
the  drooping  of  the  higher  branches.  In  the  top 
of  the  tree,  too,  the  rule  for  pruning  should  be  to 
remove  the  weaker  branches  which  seem  to  have 
outlived  their  usefulness,  and  thus  give  more 


PRUNING    ORANGE    AND    PEACH  315 

room  for  the  vigorous  ones.  High  heading  is 
practiced  by  some  growers.  It  is  open  to  the 
general  objection  to  high  heading  (see  discussions 
on  pages  193-203,  and  page  216).  The  natural 
form  of  the  orange  tree  is  undoubtedly  superior 
so  long  as  the  tree  is  not  persecuted  by  pests, 
and  is  in  a  situation  where  natural  conditions 
favor  it.  When  it  is  beset  by  evils  its  treatment 
may  have  to  be  changed  to  aid  in  conquering 
them."* 

For   discussion  of   the   treatments  to   be    given 
frozen   orange   trees,   see  pages  146-149. 


Peach 

The  peach  usually  bears  on  the  shoots  of  the 
previous  year;  therefore,  heading -in  thins  the 
fruit.  Heading -in  also  induces  a  growth  of  new 
shoots,  and  thereby  increases  the  fruit -bearing 
wood.  Heading -in  is  also  advantageous  in  re- 
moving winter -injured  twigs.  Notwithstanding 
these  advantages,  heading -in  of  the  peach  is  a 
question  of  local  application  and  of  training  the 
top  to  some  given  form.  It  is  more  generally 
practiced  on  heavy  lands — on  which  the  trees  grow 
exuberantly — than  on  sandy  lands.  The  writer 
believes  that  heading -in  is  less  essential  to  peach - 
growing  in  North  America  than  the  literature  of 


*Wicksou,  "California  Fruits,"  449. 


316  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

the  subject  would  lead  us  to  believe.  In  the 
commercial  peach  regions,  trees  are  rarely  headed- 
in,  at  least  not  after  they  begin  to  bear.  If 
heading -in  is  not  practiced,  the  chief  attention 
to  be  given  the  tree — after  the  general  frame- 
work of  the  top  is  formed — is  to  trim  out  the 
weak  and  dead  interior  wood  by  means  of  hand- 
shears.  This  fine  wood  dies  or  becomes  weak 
after  bearing,  and  should  be  removed.  For  buds 
and  twigs,  see  Figs.  34,  35,  36,  37.  For  trees,  see 
Figs.  124,  128,  129,  143,  150,  151,  152,  163,  164, 
184,  185,  186,  187. 

The  general  form  of  the  top  for  a  peach  tree 
has  already  been  discussed  (Fig.  124,  pages  261, 
262).  The  following  remarks  by  J.  H.  Hale 
will  still  further  elucidate  the  subject: 

"Young  peach  trees  allowed  to  grow  at  will  all  the  first 
season  after  setting  should  have  their  three  or  four  leading 
branches  make  a  growth  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  four 
feet  each.  Fall  and  early  winter  pruning  has  not  been 
satisfactory  with  us,  and  therefore  all  pruning  is  delayed 
until  late  winter  or  early  spring.  In  the  earlier  days  it 
was  my  custom,  in  trimming  trees  one  year  planted,  to 
cut  branches  back  to  within  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  of  the 
main  stem  ;  but  as  this  tends  to  form  rather  a  too  close 
head  for  the  foundation  year,  I  now  prefer  to  leave  the 
first  season's  growth  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  long. 
and  to  reserve  the  severe  shortening- in  for  the  second, 
third  and  fourth  years,  particularly  the  second  and  third 
years.  Besides  the  main  branches  to  be  cut  away  the  first 
year,  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  off  some  lateral  branches 
entirely  and  to  shorten  others  somewhat.  With  liberal 


PRUNING    THE    PEACH  317 

culture  and  manuring,  each  of  the  three  or  four  main 
branches  will,  in  the  second  year,  throw  out  from  their 
tips  two  or  three  leaders,  each  of  which  should  make  a 
growth  of  three  to  four  feet.  Early  in  the  spring  follow- 
ing pruning  should  begin,  with  the  object  of  building  a 
broad,  low,  open-headed  tree.  This  is  best  accomplished 
by  first  thinning  out  all  crowding  inside  branches  and 
leaders,  and  shortening- in  all  others  from  one -half  to 
three -fourths  of  the  new  year's  growth,  the  closest  cutting 
being  in  the  central  top.  The  third  year's  work  should  be 
on  the  same  general  plan ;  and  it  will  often  be  found,  unless 
the  second  year's  work  was  exceedingly  well  done,  that 
some  of  the  third  year's  work  ought  to  have  been  done  then. 
The  object  of  the  first  three  years'  pruning  is  to  establish  a 
well -formed  tree  best  suited  to  forcing  the  greatest  amount 
of  fruit  to  the  highest  perfection  at  the  least  possible  cost. 
"After  the  right  sort  of  tree  has  been  established  and 
trees  have  reached  a  bearing  age,  pruning  for  a  year  or  two 
may  be  continued,  partially  on  the  line  of  a  correct  tree 
form,  but  more  particularly  as  relating  to  fruit  production. 
And  so  right  here  we  abandon  late  winter  and  early  spring 
pruning,  and  do  most  of  the  work  after  the  fruit-buds  begin 
to  swell,  so  that  we  can  judge  on  inspection  which  are  alive 
and  which  are  dead.  In  years  when  very  few  buds  have 
survived  the  frosts  of  winter,  pruning  should  be  done  with 
the  object  of  retaining  a  great  majority  of  the  living  buds, 
regardless  of  tree  form,  which  can  be  somewhat  righted  the 
next  year.  Of  course,  in  years  when  a  good  number  of 
buds  are  found  alive,  pruning  can  be  continued  for  form, 
but  as  the  tree  grows  older,  less  and  less  pruning  will  be 
required.  The  methods  here  described  have  in  their  early 
years  given  handsome,  even-headed,  well-rounded  trees, 
which  have  been  exceedingly  profitable,  although  in  later 
years  they  have  become  less  shapely.  As  it  is  results- 
fruit  results  and  dollar  results — that  count  in  commercial 
peach  culture,  we  judge  the  method  to  be  a  decided  success, 


318  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

at  least  for  sections  where  winter-killing  of  fruit-buds  is  the 
greatest  drawback  to  success,  and  we  shall  follow  it  closely 
till  some  better  plan  presents  itself.  There  should  be  no  off- 
year  with  peaches,  except  when  fruit  or  blossom  buds  are 
entirely  killed  by  frosts.  Bight  culture,  proper  feeding  and 
pruning  should  each  year  stimulate  enough  new  growth  to 
furnish  far  more  buds  than  are  required  for  abundant 
crops." 

Another  view  of  peach -tree  pruning  may  be 
presented :  * 

"  The  methods  of  pruning  peach  trees  are  the  occasion  of 
much  discussion  among  pomologists.  The  differences  of 
opinion  turn  chiefly  about  three  practices, — short  trunks 
with  rapidly  ascending  branches,  high  trunks  with  more 
horizontal  branches,  and  shortening-in  or  heading-back  the 
annual  growth.  Each  of  these  three  methods  of  handling 
or  training  peach  trees  has  ardent  advocates  and  pronounced 
opponents.  It  is  probable  that  each  system  has  distinct 
merits  for  particular  cases.  I  believe  that  the  nature  and 
fertility  of  the  soil  are  the  dominating  factors  in  these  op- 
posing methods.  A  system  of  pruning  which  fits  the  slow 
growth  and  hard  wood  of  sandy  soils  may  not  be  adapted 
to  the  rapid  growth  and  heavier  tops  of  trees  on  strong  soils. 
Fig.  124  shows  what  I  believe  to  be,  in  general,  the  best 
method  of  pruning  peach  trees  upon  sandy  or  what  may  be 
called  peach  soils.  It  is  the  natural  method.  The  tree  is 
allowed  to  spread  its  top  at  will  with  no  heading- in.  The 
foliage  is  comparatively  light,  and  does  not  place  great 
weight  upon  the  branches,  and  the  trees,  upon  such  lands, 
do  not  grow  quickly  to  such  great  size  as  upon  heavy  lands. 
This  method  of  allowing  a  tree  to  make  its  natural  top  is 
the  common  one  in  the  Chesapeake  peninsula  and  in  the 


*L.  H.  Bailey,  Bull.  74,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 


PRUNING    PEACH    AND    PEAR  319 

Michigan  peach  belt.  It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  the 
picture  to  which  I  have  referred  shows  a  tree  with  short 
trunk  and  forking  branches.  It  is  a  prevalent  opinion  in 
many  places  that  such  trees  are  more  likely  to  split  down 
with  loads  of  fruit  than  those  which  have  more  horizontal 
branches,  but  I  think  this  to  be  an  error.  Of  course,  some 
care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  branches  do  not 
start  off  from  the  trunk  at  exactly  the  same  height,  thus 
making  a  true  fork  or  Y.  With  this  precaution,  the  crotchy 
trees  are  no  more  likely  to  split  than  the  others,  while  they 
allow  of  a  much  better  form  of  top,  unless  the  tree  is  to  be 
headed-in.  *  *  * 

11  Yet  there  is  much  to  be  said,  fairly,  for  the  high-topped 
trees.  They  are  more  easy  to  till,  and  it  is  quite  as  easy  to 
pick  their  fruit  ;  and  there  is  less  tendency  to  make  long 
and  sprawling  branches  as  a  result  of  careless  pruning.  On 
rich  lands,  it  is  perhaps  the  better  method.  And  here  is 
the  chief  reason  for  heading-back  in  this  climate, — the 
necessity  of  checking  the  growth  and  keeping  the  tree  within 
bounds  when  it  is  growing  in  a  strong  soil.  Whether  one 
shall  head -in  his  trees  or  not,  therefore,  must  depend  en- 
tirely on  circumstances." 

Pear 

Pear  trees  are  generally  started  lower  than 
apple  trees.  This  is  because  the  top  tends  to 
grow  more  upright,  and  therefore  to  be  out  of 
the  way,  and  because  the  trunk  is  very  liable  to 
be  injured  by  sun -scald.  Three  to  four  feet  is 
the  usual  height  of  pear  trunks  in  the  East. 
The  top  should  be  thinned  out  every  spring 
(preferably  before  the  leaves  start) ;  but  heavy 
pruning  should  always  be  avoided,  because  it 


320  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

causes  a  quick  growth,  and  thereby  exposes  the 
tree  to  danger  from  fire -blight.  Removing  the 
fruit -spurs, — which  are  very  prominent  in  the 
pear,  persisting  for  several  or  many  years, — is  a 
direct  and  economical  means  of  thinning  the 
fruit.  It  is  well  to  keep  all  spurs  and  sprouts 
off  the  trunk  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  main 
limbs,  for  if  blight  attacks  these  shoots  the  dis- 
ease is  apt  to  run  down  into  the  trunk  and  cause 
irreparable  damage.  For  spurs  and  buds,  see 
Figs.  19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  55,  56, 
59,  60,  61,  117,  118.  For  pictures  of  trees,  see 
Figs.  116,  130,  131,  141,  142,  148,  149,  165,  191, 
192;  for  dwarfs,  111,  195,  196,  197,  198,  199, 
200,  201,  202,  203,  204.  For  treatment  of  body- 
blight,  consult  Fig.  101. 

Plum 

In  the  East,  most  plum -growers  prefer  to  start 
the  top  about  three  or  three  and  a -half  feet  from 
the  ground.  If  the  top  is  to  be  sheared -in,  it 
may  be  started  somewhat  higher.  Figs.  120  and 
121  should  be  contrasted  with  Fig.  122,  as  show- 
ing typical  examples  of  headed -in  and  free -grow- 
ing trees.  The  fruit  is  borne  mostly  on  spurs, 
and  simple  heading -in  is  not'  a  means  of  thin- 
ning. The  Japanese  and  native  varieties,  how- 
ever, often  bear  on  the  last  year's  shoots  (Fig. 
224).  Trees  bear  as  well  if  not  headed -in  as 


PRUNING  THE    PLUM 


321 


they  do  when  they  are  headed -in.  The  practice 
of  heading -in  is  therefore  not  fundamental,  but 
is  to  be  determined  by  the  grower's  ideals,  the 


1234 
Fig.  224.     Buds  on  the  new  growth  of  plums.     1,  domestica  (Coe 
Golden  Drop),  leaf -buds  only.    The  others  have  lateral  fruit- 
buds  :    2,  Japanese  (Burbank) ;  3,  Japanese  (Kerr) ;  4,  Native 
(Wild  Goose). 

rapidity  of  growth,  distance  apart  of  the  trees, 
and  the  like.  For  buds  and  spurs,  see  Figs. 
28,  29,  30,  and  compare  Fig.  224.  For  trees,  see 
Figs.  120,  121,  122,  132,  166,  193.  See  Apricot 
(page  310), 


322 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


Quince 

Quince  trees  should  be  headed  very  low.  Fig. 
225  shows  what  may  be  considered  to  be  model 
commercial  trees.  Some  people  grow  them  to 
bush  form,  but  a  distinct  short  trunk  is  generally 


225.    New  York  quince  trees. 

to  be  preferred.  The  interior  growth  is  thinned 
out  each  winter  or  spring,  and  if  the  growth  is 
very  heavy — say  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  on 
bearing  trees — it  may  be  headed -back.  Heading- 
in  thins  the  fruit,  since  the  flowers  are  co- ter- 
minal ;  but  cutting  off  all  the  tips  generally  re- 
moves too  much  of  the  fruit.  For  twigs  and 
buds,  see  Figs.  47,  48. 


PRUNING    BRAMBLES  323 

Blackberries   and  Raspberries 

Blackberries,  raspberries  and  dewberries  bear 
on  canes  which  grew  the  preceding  year,  and, 
having  borne  once,  these  canes  become  worthless 
(read  page  64).  Pruning  of  these  fruits  consists 
(1)  in  removing  superfluous  shoots  from  the  base 
of  the  plant,  so  that  too  many  canes  shall  not 
form  (five  or  six  to  a  plant  usually  being  suffi- 
cient) ;  (2)  in  heading -back  the  shoots  when 
they  reach  the  desired  height,  causing  them  to 
throw  out  laterals  and  to  become  stocky  ;  (3) 
heading -back  these  laterals  (usually  done  the 
next  spring,  before  growth  starts) ;  (4)  cutting 
out  the  canes  after  they  have  borne  (usually  done 
the  following  winter  or  spring,  but  should  be 
done,  in  general,  soon  after  the  fruit  is  off) . 

Of  blackberries,  the  growing  caues  should  be  headed-in, 
—two  to  four  inches  of  the  tips  cut  off,— when  they  are 
from  two  and  a-half  to  three  feet  high.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary to  go  over  the  plantation  three  or  four  times  for  this 
purpose,  as  the  different  canes  reach  the  desired  height 
at  different  times.  Laterals  will  now  push  out  vigorously, 
but  these  are  allowed  to  grow  their  full  length.  Early 
the  following  spring,  these  laterals  are  shortened.  There 
is  no  rule  respecting  the  proper  length  to  leave  these 
laterals.  Sometimes  they  are  injured  by  the  winter,  and 
must  be  cut-in  short.  And  there  is  great  difference  in 
varieties  in  the  way  in  which  they  bear  their  fruit;  some 
kinds,  like  Wilson  Early,  bear  the  fruit  close  to  the  cane, 
while  others,  like  Snyder  and  Early  Harvest,  should  be 
cut  longer.  Some  varieties  are  variable  in  their  habit  of 


324 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


bearing  fruit,  and  on  such  kinds  some  growers  prefer  to 
delay  the  pruning  of  laterals  until  the  blossoms  appear. 
From  twelve  to  twenty  inches  is  the  length  at  which  the 
laterals  are  generally  left.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
these  laterals  are  to  bear  most  of  the  fruit;  hence  it  is 
important  that  they  make  a  good  growth,  become  well 
matured,  and  that  the  grower  familiarize  himself  with 
the  habits  of  different  varieties.  It  is  generally  important 


226.    Trellis  for  berries. 


227.     Rack  for  blackberries. 


that  the  heading -in  of  the  main  cane  be  done  early,  so 
that  the  laterals  may  make  an  early  and  hard  growth, 
and  that  they  may  start  rather  low  down  on  the  cane, 
and  thereby  prevent  the  cane  from  tipping  over  with  its 
load  of  fruit.  Blackberry  bushes  which  are  managed  as 
here  outlined  will  stand  alone,  without  stakes  or  trel- 
lises. The  bushes  are  sometimes  kept  from  lopping  by 
stretching  a  single  wire  along  either  side  of  the  row, 
securing  it  to  stakes  which  stand  two  or  three  feet  high 
(Fig.  226).  Individual  bushes  may  be  supported  by  a  rack, 
as  suggested  in  Fig.  227.  In  some  places,  particularly 
along  the  Hudson,  blackberries  are  trained  on  wires,  after 


PRUNING     BLACKBERRIES 


325 


the  manner  of  grapes.  A  blackberry  trellis  is  shown  in 
Fig.  228.  The  two-wire  trellis  is  generally  preferred.  The 
young  canes  are  headed- in  just  above  the  upper  wire, 
and  they  are  gathered  in  bunches  in  the  hand  and  tied 
to  the  upper  wire,  where  they  will  least  interfere  with  the 
ripening  fruit.  These  canes  may  remain  on  the  wires 


228.     Blackberries  on  a  trellis. 

all  winter,  or  they  may  be  laid  down  for  protection.  Early 
the  following  spring,  they  are  tied  securely  to  both  wires. 
This  makes,  therefore,  one  summer  tying  for  the  young 
canes,  and  one  spring  tying  for  the  bearing  canes.  Black- 
berries may  also  be  tied  to  single  stakes,  although  the 
practice  is  scarcely  advisable,  because  the  fruit  is  apt  to 
become  too  much  massed  in  the  foliage. 

An  exchange  writes  as  follows  on  supports  for  berry 
bushes:  "Wire  is  very  commonly  used  as  a  support  for 
raspberry  and  blackberry  bushes,  this  being  stretched 


326  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

tightly  along  stout  stakes,  the  end  stakes  being  of  neces- 
sity very  stout  and  very  firmly  braced.  But  this  does 
not  suffice  to  keep  the  wire  stiffly  in  place.  Where  wires 
are  stretched  along  each  side  of  a  row  already,  they 
can  be  made  much  more  efficient  by  tying  them  together 
with  cross  wires  every  ten  feet  or  so.  This  pulls  them 
together  and  keeps  the  bushes 
upright  and  in  place.  Where 
there  is  no  support  at  pres- 
ent, and  support  is  to  be  given 
the  bushes,  the  plan  shown 
in  the  diagram  (Pig.  229) 

can  be  followed  to   advantage. 
Fig.  229.     A  handy  wire        _  .   ,  , 

support.  Llght  wooden  stnPs  of  meh- 

square  stuff  are  held  up  by 

stakes  of  the  same  material  and  rigidly  attached  to  each 
other  by  cross  wires.  These  cross  wires  are  the  most 
important  part  of  the  whole,  for  they  are  constantly 
pulling  the  bushes  up  into  close  quarters, —the  one  thing 
for  which  supports  are  desired." 

Black  raspberries,  or  black-caps,  are  usually  headed-in 
when  from  one  and  one -half  to  two  feet  high.  It  is  im- 
portant that  this  heading-back  be  done  as  soon  as  the  canes 
reach  the  desired  height,  for  the  laterals  then  start  low,  and 
the  bush  becomes  stout  and  self-supporting.  The  following 
spring  the  laterals  are  cut  back  to  twelve  to  eighteen  inches, 
as  blackberries  are.  Black  raspberries  are  sometimes  sup- 
ported by  wires  (Fig.  226),  but  best  results  are  usually  ob- 
tained when  the  plants  are  made  to  stand  alone. 

Red  raspberries  are  seldom  headed-in  during  the  growing 
season,  but  otherwise  they  are  treated  like  black-caps.  Fig. 
230  shows  a  cane  (of  Cuthbert)  well  pruned,  but  the  canes 
in  Fig.  231  are  pruned  too  high  and  are  top-heavy.  Well- 
pruned  black -caps  and  blackberries  have  essentially  the 
form  of  Fig.  230. 

The  canes  of   dewberries  are  tied  to  stakes,  disposed  on 


CURRANTS    AND    GOOSEBERRIES 


327 


trellises  (as  on  Fig.  229),  or  tied  to  wire  screen  (Fig.  232). 
The  best  method,  probably,  is  to  tie  to  stakes,  allowing 
three  to  six  canes  to  each  stake  (Fig.  233). 

Currants  and  Gooseberries 

The   canes   of    currants    and   gooseberries   bear 
several  times,  but  the  first  two  or  three  crops  are 


230.     Well  pruned. 


231.     Poorly  pruned. 


the  best.  It  is  therefore  desirable,  after  the 
plants  have  come  into  bearing,  to  cut  out  one  or 
more  of  the  oldest  canes  each  year,  and  to  en- 
courage as  many  new  ones.  The  bush  is,  there- 
fore, constantly  renewed.  If  the  old  canes  are 
allowed  to  remain,  the  fruit  becomes  small,  the 


328 


SOME     SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


bushes  get  too  tall,  and  the  currant  borer  is  en- 
couraged.    In  Fig.  234,   the   old  branching   cane 

a  should  be  removed.  At 
its  left,  two  vigorous  canes 
— one  two  seasons  old  and 
the  other  one  season  old — 
are  ready  to  take  its  place. 
When  bushes  make  very 
strong  and  tall  growths, 
the  canes  may  be  headed- 
back.  For  spurs  and 
buds,  see  Figs.  43,  44 

The  following  advice  is 
by  Beach:* 

"la  large  plantations  it  has 
been  found  most  satisfactory 
to  permit  currants  to  grow  in 
bush  form  rather  than  in  the 
tree  form,  as  the  old  canes 
may  then  be  removed  when  they 
become  unproductive,  as  they 
do  after  a  few  years,  and  their 
places  may  be  taken  by  new 
canes  that  have  been  permitted 
to  grow  for  this  purpose.  Then 
too,  if  the  trunk  of  a  currant 
in  tree  form  is  broken  off  or 
injured  in  any  way,  a  new 
plant  must  be  set  in  its  place, 

but  when  several  canes   are  permitted  to  grow,   as  is  the 
case  when  the  plants  are  grown  in  bush  form,  the   acci- 


232.     Dewberries  on 
wire  screen. 


*Bull.  95,  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta. 


PRUNING    CURRANTS 


329 


dental  breaking  of  a  trunk  does  not  cause  the  death  of  the 
whole  plant,  but  its  place  is  readily  filled  by  permitting 
other  canes  to  grow  from  the  root.  The  tree  form  is  well 
adapted  to  well -cultivated  gardens,  as  the  plants  may  be 


233.     Dewberries  on  stakes.    A  model  treatment. 

pruned  into  more  symmetrical,  attractive  shape  as  trees 
than  as  bushes.  To  grow  currants  in  tree  form  it  is  simply 
necessary  to  remove  all  buds  from  the  part  of  the  cutting  or 
layer  that  is  put  in  the  ground.  This  prevents  the  growth 
of  shoots  from  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  conse- 


330 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 


quently  no  suckers  are  formed.  The  tree  currants  may  be 
kept  in  symmetrical  shape  by  annually  cutting -back  the 
shoots  of  new  wood,  leaving  but  two  or  three  buds  to  the 
shoot.  This  may  be  done  at  any  convenient  time  while  the 
leaves  are  off. 

"No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  pruning  currants  grown 
in  bush  form,  for  the  kind  and  amount  of  pruning  necessary 
is  in  each  case  determined  by  the  condition  and  individual 


234.    Illustrating  the  pruning  of  a  currant  bush. 


habits  of  growth  of  the  bush  to  be  pruned.  In  general,  it 
may  be  said  that  during  the  first  two  or  three  years  the 
bushes  require  but  little  pruning  except  to  head-back  the 
new  shoots  so  that  fruit- spurs  will  develop  all  along  the 
cane.  Otherwise  the  fruit-bearing  branches  and  fruit-spurs 
will  be  found  mostly  near  the  top  of  a  long  cane.  When 
this  is  permitted,  especially  with  some  varieties,  such  as  Fay, 
for  example,  the  weight  of  the  fruit  is  quite  apt  to  bend  the 
canes  nearly  or  quite  to  the  ground.  Besides  this  heading- 
in  to  keep  the  bushes  in  shape,  the  pruning  consists  of  re- 


PRUNING    GOOSEBERRIES         .  331 

moving  the  broken  branches,  or  those  that  droop  too  closely 
to  the  ground,  and  removing  the  old  wood  after  it  has 
passed  the  age  of  greatest  productiveness." 

For  gooseberries,  Beach  writes  as  follows:* 

"English  writers  usually  recommend  that  gooseberries 
be  trained  in  tree  form;  that  is,  with  a  single  main  stem 
for  each  plant,  and  that  method  is  largely  followed  in 
the  old  country.  On  account  of  their  neat,  symmetrical 
appearance,  such  plants  are  well  adapted  to  well -culti- 
vated gardens.  *  *  *  A  bush  grown  in  this  form  does 
not  produce  suckers,  and  if  it  is  broken  off  accidentally 
it  cannot  be  renewed  by  letting  new  sprouts  grow,  but 
must  be  removed  and  a  new  plant  set  in  its  place.  After 
they  have  borne  five  or  six  good  crops  it  is  generally 
best  to  replace  them  with  new  bushes,  for  they  gradually 
become  less  productive  than  plants  which  are  grown  in 
the  bush  form,  because  the  latter  may  be  renewed  from 
suckers  whenever  it  is  thought  desirable  to  do  so.  To 
grow  bushes  in  tree  form,  it  is  simply  necessary  to  remove 
all  buds  or  eyes  from  the  portion  of  the  cutting  or  layer 
which  is  covered  with  earth  in  planting.  No  underground 
shoots,  or  suckers,  will  then  be  formed,  and  the  plant 
will  have  but  one  main  stem  or  trunk.  By  annually  cut- 
ting back  new  shoots  to  about  three  eyes,  and  removing 
all  weak  or  crowded  branches,  the  tree  form  may  easily 
be  kept  in  symmetrical  shape. 

"For  general  purposes  it  is  best  to  set  plants  that  will 
send  up  suckers.  The  older  canes,  which  have  passed 
their  period  of  highest  productiveness,  may  then  be  removed 
annually,  and  their  places  taken  by  young,  vigorous  ones 
which  have  been  allowed  to  grow  for  this  purpose.  By 
this  method  of  renewal,  the  skillful  grower  may  keep 

*Bull.  114,  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta. 


332  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

his  plantation  in  a  high  state  of  productiveness  for  an 
indefinite  period.  Including  the  young  canes  which  are 
to  be  used  for  renewal,  as  above  suggested,  there  will 
usually  be  five  or  six  canes  to  a  bush,  or  even  a  greater 
number  than  this  with  varieties  of  the  American  class, 
which  have  more  slender  canes. 

"Gooseberries  generally  require  little  pruning  during 
the  first  two  or  three  years  after  they  are  planted  except 
to  clip  a  few  inches  off  from  the  strong  new  shoots  and 
a  less  amount  from  the  less  vigorous  ones.  This  may 
be  done  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  fall.  The  object  is 
to  favor  the  development  of  the  fruit -spurs  all  along 
the  cane.  If  it  is  not  done  the  strong  buds  at  or  near 
the  end  of  the  cane  will  start  into  such  vigorous  growth 
in  spring  that  the  lower  buds  will  not  start  or  will 
make  but  little  growth,  so  that  eventually  most  of  the 
fruiting  branches  and  spurs  will  be  developed  near  the 
upper  end  of  a  long  cane  which,  when  loaded  with  fruit, 
is  apt  to  bend  nearly  or  quite  to  the  ground. 

"Besides  heading-in  the  bushes  in  the  way  just  described, 
the  pruning  consists  in  removing  weak  or  broken  branches 
and  those  which  have  made  an  excessively  vigorous 
growth.  Old  canes  that  have  passed  the  age  of  greatest 
productiveness,  and  branches  that  are  close  to  the  ground, 
should  also  be  taken  away.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given 
for  pruning  gooseberries,  because  the  kind  and  amount 
required  varies  with  the  individual  habits  and  condi- 
tion of  growth  of  the  bush.  A  little  attention  each 
year  is  necessary  to  keep  the  bushes  in  best  shape  for 
cultivating,  spraying,  fruit  picking,  and  for  the  free  circu- 
lation of  air  through  and  especially  underneath  the 
branches.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  center  of 
the  bush  must  be  kept  open  to  let  the  sunlight  in,  as  is 
sometimes  advocated.  In  this  climate  the  fruit  may  be 
ruined  by  such  unnatural  exposure  to  direct  sunlight,  and 
it  is  better  to  have  it  shaded  by  the  foliage. 


SHADE  TREES  AND  HEDGES        333 

"  Summer  pruning  is  sometimes  practiced  with  good 
results.  It  consists  in  pinching  off  the  ends  of  the  vig- 
orous shoots  at  the  period  of  active  growth  in  early  sum- 
mer. The  object  is  to  favor  the  development  of  fruit- 
spurs." 

Further  remarks  on  the  pruning  of  small -fruit 
plants  may  be  found  in  Card's  "Bush -Fruits." 

Shade    Trees 

When  shade  trees  are  once  well  established, 
they  usually  need  no  attention  in  pruning  except 
to  remove  broken  or  dying  parts,  to  cut  off  limbs 
which  hang  too  low,  and  to  correct  any  tendency 
towards  unshapely  growth.  When  planted,  the 
shade  tree,  if  well  branched,  should  be  pruned 
in  essentially  the  same  way  as  apples  and  pears. 
Figs.  144,  145,  146  may  be  taken  as  models. 
Young  trees  which  are  well  supplied  with  buds 
on  the  main  axis  may  be  cut  to  a  whip,  but  the 
common  practice  of  chopping  large  trees  into  the 
form  of  bean-poles  is  to  be  discouraged. 

Hedges 

The  beauty  and  value  of  hedges  lie  in  the 
thickness  of  the  hedge,  and  in  its  uniformity 
from  end  to  end.  The  plants  should  be  set  very 
close  together,  and  the  hedge  should  be  system- 
atically and  thoroughly  pruned  every  year  from 
the  first.  It  is  best,  in  fact,  to  prune  the  hedge 


334  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

two  or  three  times  during  the  season,  in  order  to 
prevent  too  great  and  straggly  growth  of  any 
one  plant  or  any  one  branch  of  a  plant.  The 
practice  of  cutting  down  the  hedge  severely  in 
winter,  and  then  not  touching  it  again  until  the 
following  winter,  results  in  a  heavy  growth  which 
makes  the  hedge  look  ragged  and  unkempt  dur- 
ing the  summer,,  and  which  also  makes  it  diffi- 
cult to  bring  the  hedge  under  subjection.  The 
hedge  should  be  pruned  in  the  winter  time,  and 
also  should  be  sheared  two  or  three  times  during 
the  summer.  The  season  of  the  year  is  imma- 
terial, so  long  as  strong  growths  are  kept  down 
and  the  hedge  is  kept  in  uniform  shape  and  con- 
dition. The  operator  must  first  decide  upon  the 
shape  of  hedge  which  he  desires,  whether  conical- 
topped,  round -topped  or  flat -topped,  and  then 
work  to  that  model.  The  form  should  be  blocked 
out  very  early  in  the  life  of  the  hedge, — in  fact, 
just  as  soon  as  the  plants  begin  to  grow  thick 
enough  to  form  a  wall.  This  same  form  can  be 
kept  year  by  year  ;  but  the  hedge  will  necessarily 
rise  a  little  in  height  every  year,  at  least  until  the 
plants  have  grown  several  years,  and  the  vigor 
has  begun  to  be  checked  by  the  continuous  prun- 
ing and  the  crowding  of  the  roots. 

In  order  to  make  hedges  impenetrable  to  pigs 
and  other  animals,  the  plants  are  often  plashed 
when  young.  This  consists  in  bending  the  main 
shoots  over  to  an  oblique  or  diagonal  position, 


FLOWERING    TREES    AND    SHRUBS  335 

and  securing  them  there  by  wiring  them  down, 
one  plant  bending  over  the  following  one.  Plants 
which  are  to  be  plashed  are  generally  set  at  an 
angle  when  transplanted  to  their  permanent  posi- 
tions. Deciduous -leaved  and  thorny  plants,  as 
osage  orange,  are  generally  used  for  the  making 
of  pig -tight  hedges. 

Ornamental  Plants 

Three  objects  are  involved  in  the  pruning  of 
ornamental  trees  and  shrubs, — to  produce  some 
desired  form,  to  cause  the  plants  to  develop  strong 
and  uniform  foliage,  to  produce  flower -buds.  The 
desired  form  is  secured  by  shearing,  the  luxurious 
and  continuous  foliage  by  cutting  back  rampant 
growths  and  thereby  encouraging  a  uniform  de- 
velopment of  the  different  parts  of  the  plant,  and 
the  flower -buds  by  giving  attention  to  the  flower- 
bearing  habit  of  the  particular  plant  in  question. 

The  pruner  should  know  whether  the  flowers 
are  borne  on  the  ends  of  terminal  or  lateral 
shoots  of  the  season,  or  on  the  ends  or  sides 
of  last  year's  shoots. 

Most  early -flower  ing  shrubs  bear  terminal  flow- 
ers. Every  effort  should  be  made,  therefore,  to 
secure  many  shoots.  The  flower -buds  in  the 
early -flowering  shrubs  are  formed  the  year  be- 
fore. Heading -in  in  winter,  then,  destroys  the 
bloom.  Heading -in  just  as  soon  as  the  flowers 
fall  encourages  the  growth  of  new  shoots,  which 


336  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

will  bloom  the  following  year.  Of  such  plants 
are  lilac,  mock  orange,  many  spireas,  and  the  like. 
These  shoots  will  form,  of  course,  wholly  without 
the  aid  of  pruning,  but  when  the  bush  begins 
to  get  crowded  or  weak,  vigorous  heading -back 
and  thinning -out  may  be  advisable.  The  impor- 
tant point  is,  that  if  the  person  desires  to  prune 
to  keep  his  plant  within  a  given  form  or  stature, 
he  should  know  when  the  cutting  will  not  sacrifice 
the  bloom. 

Summer -blooming  trees  and  shrubs  bear  flowers 
on  shoots  of  the  same  season.  That  is,  the  flower- 
buds  are  not  formed  the  fall  before.  In  these 
plants,  we  want  a  profusion  of  strong  spring  or 
early  summer  growths,  and  fall,  winter  or  very 
early  spring  pruning  is,  therefore,  desirable.  Of 
this  class  are  most  of  the  roses.  Rose  bushes  are 
pruned  mostly  in  fall  or  winter.  The  hybrid  per- 
petuals  are  often  cut  to  the  ground  and  strong 
flowering  shoots  arise  in  the  spring.  The  hardier 
and  more  perennial  kinds — as  the  moss  and  cab- 
bage and  rugosa  types — are  cut  back  when  dor- 
mant, much  as  one  would  head -in  and  thin  out  a 
small  fruit-tree. 

Walker  gives  the  following  hints  on  pruning 
outdoor  roses:* 

"  Pruning  is  an  important  matter  in  rose-growing.  Climb- 
ing and  pillar  roses  need  only  the  weak  branches  and  the 


*Ernest  Walker,  in  "Garden-Making,"  297. 


FLOWERING    SHRUBS  337 

tips  shortened -in  ;  other  hardy  kinds  will  usually  need  cut- 
ting-back about  one -fourth  or  one -third,  according  to  the 
vigor  of  the  branches,  either  in  the  spring  or  fall.  A  slight 
cutting-back,  also,  after  their  June-flowering  in  the  case  of 
remontants,  will  encourage  more  flowers.  Severe  pruning, 
however,  will  only  induce  the  growth  of  vigorous,  leafy 
shoots  without  flowers.  The  everblooming  roses  will  need 
to  have  all  dead  wood  removed  at  the  time  of  uncovering 
them  in  spring.  Some  pruning  during  the  summer  is  also 
useful  in  encouraging  growth  and  flowers.  The  stronger 
branches  which  have  flowered  maybe  cut  back  one -half  or 
more.  The  rule  in  trimming  roses  is,  cut  back  weak-grow- 
ing kinds  severely  ;  strong  growers  moderately." 

The  following  extracts  give  another  view  of  the 
essential  principles  in  the  pruning  of  flowering 
shrubs : * 

"  There  are  two  or  three  elementary  rules  which  are 
to  be  observed  when  the  production  of  flowers  is  primarily 
desired.  Shrubs  which  blossom  early  in  the  spring  form 
their  flower -buds  the  year  before,  and  ingeniously  protect 
them  during  the  winter  with  a  warm  covering,  so  that  they 
are  ready  to  open  with  the  early  days  of  spring  sunshine. 
Any  one  who  will  cut  off  the  twig  of  a  peach  tree  in  the 
winter  or  of  an  early -flowering  spirea  and  put  it  in  water 
will  understand  this,  for  the  flowers  will  expand  in  a  few 
days  after  it  has  been  brought  into  a  warm  room.  Ob- 
viously, if  the  branches  of  such  shrubs  are  cut-back  hard  in 
autumn,  all  the  flower -buds  are  cut  away  and  there  is  no 
bloom  in  the  spring.  If,  however,  the  branches  are  cut -back 
immediately  after  the  flowering  season  is  over,  this  will 
encourage  the  growth  of  new  shoots  from  buds  near  the 
base  of  the  branch,  and  these  will  grow  rapidly  to  take  the 

*Editorial  in  "Garden  and  Forest,"  December  2,  189(5. 
V 


338  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

place  of  the  part  that  has  been  lost,  and  cover  the'mselves 
with  flower -buds  for  another  year. 

"Another  class  of  shrubs,  like  the  hydrangeas,  althaeas  and 
certain  tamarisks,  which  flower  in  late  summer  or  autumn 
from  buds  which  have  developed  on  the  wood  grown  dur- 
ing the  current  summer,  should  be  pruned  in  late  autumn 
after  flowering,  or,  at  least,  before  the  wood  starts  in  the 
spring,  so  as  to  encourage  abundant  summer  growth  and 
flower-buds  for  the  next  autumn. 

"But  these  are  the  simplest  elementary  rules,  and  relate 
solely  to  the  production  of  flowers.  Shrubs  are  useful 
for  many  other  purposes  than  merely  to  display  their 
blossoms.  They  are  beautiful  all  the  year  round.  Even 
in  the  winter  the  variously  colored  barks  of  many  of  them 
add  a  singular  charm  to  the  landscape.  We,  therefore, 
prune  them  not  only  to  promote  the  production  of  flowers, 
but  of  wood  and  foliage  and  fruit  as  well,  to  insure  grace 
or  symmetry  of  outline,  and  to  make  them  vigorous  and 
healthy. 

"The  simple  cutting-in  of  flowering  wood  in  spring  or 
fall  is  thus  a  small  part  of  the  art  of  pruning,  and  where 
there  is  a  large  variety  of  shrubs  there  is  no  time  of  year 
when  something  in  this  direction  cannot  be  done,  and  it  is 
especially  useful  when  it  is  continued  throughout  the  entire 
growing  season. 

"If  surplus  wood  is  to  be  removed,  a  clean  cut  in  midsum- 
mer will  heal  over  much  more  readily  than  it  will  in  cold 
weather,  and  there  is  no  better  time  for  removing  superfluous 
branches  or  for  shortening-in  over-vigorous  shoots  which 
interfere  with  the  symmetry  of  a  specimen.  Some  trees 
and  shrubs,  whose  branches  bleed  when  cut  in  spring,  will 
heal  over  quickly  if  pruned  while  in  full  leaf. 

"If  the  strong  branches  are  pinched  back  in  summer  the 
wood  will  ripen  into  such  a  sound  condition  for  withstand- 
ing cold-  that  trees  naturally  tender  have  been  known  to 
endure  our  winters  fairly  well  when  their  branches  have  been 


PRUNING    SHRUBS  339 

properly  stopped.  This  summer  pinching  is  especially  use- 
ful in  wet  seasons,  when  otherwise  the  wood  keeps  growing 
late  in  autumn  and  is  caught  by  freezing  weather  in  a  soft 
and  sappy  condition.  It  also  discourages  upward  growth 
where  this  is  undesirable,  and  tends  to  develop  fruit-buds, 
so  that  shrubs  and  trees  will  bear  fruit  at  an  earlier  age  when 
they  are  properly  pinched-back.  For  the  same  reason 
shrubs  will  ripen  their  fruit  more  perfectly  when  the 
stronger  shoots  above  it  have  been  stopped.  *  *  * 

"A  young  plant  carefully  pruned  when  it  is  set  out  in 
good  ground,  with  room  enough  to  grow  in,  will  sometimes 
need,  as  it  grows,  to  have  interior  branches  cut  away  for 
the  admission  of  light  and  air,  and  the  over -strong  shoots 
pinched-back  in  midsummer  and  dead  wood  carefully  re- 
moved. Little  more  will  be  required,  as  a  rule,  except  to 
shorten-in  judiciously  the  flowering  wood  after  bloom,  and 
under  this  treatment  shrubs  will  develop  into  their  best 
form,  and  flower  abundantly  year  after  year." 

The  important  point  to  remember,  then,  in  the 
pruning  of  flowering  shrubs  is  that  there  are  two 
great  categories  of  shrubs  as  respects  the  time 
and  mode  of  flower -bearing, — those  flowering  in 
early  spring  more  or  less  directly  from  winter 
buds,  and  those  flowering  in  summer  or  autumn 
from  buds  formed  that  season.  The  methods  of 
pruning  to  produce  a  given  form  of  bush  are  the 
same  in  either  case  ;  but  if  it  is  desired  to  head- 
in  and  yet  not  to  sacrifice  the  bloom,  the  early- 
flowering  shrubs  should  be  cut -back  just  after 
blooming  rather  than  in  winter,  and  the  summer- 
flowering  kinds  in  winter  (or  when  the  plants 
are  dormant).  Some  of  the  common  shrubs 


340  SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE 

may   be   ranged   in  these   two   categories,  as   ex- 
amples : 

SPRING-FLOWERING 

(Head-back  immediately  after  blooming) 

Kalmia.  Weigela. 

Rhododendron .  Forsythia . 

Azalea.  Flowering  Currants. 

Snowball.  Kerria. 

Lilac.  Barberry. 

Mock -orange.  »                           Viburnums. 

Most  woody  spireas.  Flowering  Crabs. 

Exochorda.  Magnolias. 

SUMMER-FLOWERING 

(Head-back  when  dormant) 

Many  roses.  Althaea  and  hibiscus. 

Spiraea  sorbifolia.  Tamarisk. 

Clematis.  Elder. 
Hydrangea. 


CHAPTER    VI 


SOME   SPECIFIC   MODES   OF   TRAINING 

There  are  many  modes  of  training  which  are 
so  special  and  of  such  local  and  personal  appli- 
cation, that  they  should  be  considered  in  a  class 
by  themselves.  They  are  essentially  Old  World 
methods,  born  of  garden -culture  and  of  cli- 
mates less  hot  and  sunny  than  ours.  (See  re- 
marks under  Section  13,  Chapter  IV.).  They  are 
not  adapted  to  commercial  fruit-growing  or  plant- 
growing  in  this  country,  nor  to  any  country  in 
which  land  is  cheap  and  hand  labor  dear.  Yet, 
so  common  are  these  special  methods  of  training 
fruit-trees  in  Europe  that  the  Old  World  litera- 
ture of  pruning  is  largely  descriptive  of  methods 
and  modes  of  growing  plants  on  walls  and  trel- 
lises and  in  geometrical  figures.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  make  any  extended  discussion  of  these 
matters  in  this  book,  although  a  few  summary 
hints  may  be  given  for  the  benefit  of  those  who 
want  the  fun  of  training  a  few  plants  or  who 
desire  to  copy  European  methods.  For  details 
the  reader  should  consult  foreign  books,  espe- 
cially those  in  French. 

We  may  analyze  the  subject  as  follows: 
(341) 


342        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

I.    Training  of  plants  growing  in  the  open  soil. 

1.  Without  permanent  support. 

Pyramids, 
Globe-form, 
Vase-form,  etc. 

2.  On  permanent  support. 
a.  On  Espaliers — 

cordon, 

horizontal, 

oblique, 

fan -shape, 

horizontal  arm,  etc. 
6.  On  walls — 

cordon, 

horizontal, 

oblique, 

fan -shape, 

horizontal  arm,  etc. 
,  II.  Training   of  plants   in   receptacles  (as   pots 

or  tubs). 

Trained  in  various  fashions,  but  chiefly 
as  self-supporting  bushes  of  many 
shapes. 

EUROPEAN  PRACTICE 

Before  proceeding  with  our  subject  of  special 
forms  of  training,  it  will  be  necessary  to  con- 
sider some  of  the  words  used  in  the  above  synop- 
sis. In  Europe  (and  properly)  the  word  stand- 


REMARKS    ON    TRAINING  343 

ard  means  growing  to  a  single  trunk  and  not 
trained  to  a  wall,  trellis,  or  other  permanent  sup- 
port. In  this  country,  it  is  used  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  word  dwarf.  An  espalier  is  a 
trellis,  or  a  plant  which  is  grown  on  a  trellis. 
The  word  does  not  refer  to  the  mode  of  training. 
A  cordon  is  properly  a  plant  grown  to  a  single 
shoot,  or  to  two  shoots  trained  in  diametrically 
opposite  directions.  It  is  sometimes  used,  how- 
ever, to  designate  plants  trained  to  two  or  more 
straight  shoots  which  are  nearly  or  quite  parallel. 
Although  the  mode  of  training  is  largely  a 
question  of  personal  preference,  it  must  never- 
theless conform  to  the  principles  of  pruning, 
if  it  is  to  be  successful.  One  of  the  best  accounts 
which  I  know  of  the  general  principles  under- 
lying the  training  of  plants,  is  by  Du  Breuil.* 
Before  proceeding  to  these  principles,  we  may 
enumerate  Du  BreuiPs  reasons  for  training: 

1.  It    enables    us    to    impart   to    trees    a   form 
suitable  to  the  place  they  are  intended  to  occupy. 

2.  Each  of   the  principal   branches  of   the  tree 
is   furnished  with   fruit   branches   throughout   its 
full  extent. 

3.  It  renders  the  fructification  more  equal ;   for 
in  removing  every  year  the   superabundant  buds 
and  branches,  we  contribute  to  the  formation  of 
new  fruit-buds  for  the  next  year. 

*Alphouse  Du  Breuil,  "The  Scientific  and  Profitable  Culture  of  Fruit- 
trees",  English  edition.    An  excellent  book  for  the  student. 


344        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

4.  It  conduces  to  the  production  of  large  fruit 
and  of  finer  quality. 

Du  Breuil's  "general  principles  of  training," 
with  corollaries,  which  apply  with  particular 
force  to  training  on  walls  and  espaliers,  now 
follow : 

The  permanency  of  form  of  trained  trees  is  dependent  upon 
the  equal  diffusion  of  sap  being  maintained  throughout 
the  whole  extent  of  their  branches. 

Prune  the  strong  branches  short ;  but  allow  the  weaker 
ones  to  grow  long. 

Depress  the  strong  parts  of  the  tree,  and  elevate  the 
weak  branches. 

Suppress  the  useless  buds  upon  the  strong  parts  as  early 
as  possible,  and  practice  this  suppression  as  late  as  pos- 
sible upon  the  weak  parts. 

Suppress  very  early  the  herbaceous  extremities  of  the 
strong  part,  but  practice  the  suppression  as  late  as  pos- 
sible upon  the  weak  part,  taking  off  only  the  most  vig- 
orous shoots,  and  those  that  must  in  any  case  be  removed 
on  account  of  the  position  they  occupy. 

Nail  up  the  strong  part  very  early  and  very  close  to  the 
wall  or  trellis,  but  delay  doing  so  to  the  weak  part. 

Suppress  a  number  of  the  leaves  upon  the  strong  side. 

Allow  as  large  a  quantity  of  the  fruit  as  possible  to  re- 
main upon  the  strong  side,  and  suppress  all  upon  the 
weak  side. 

Soften  all  the  green  parts  on  the  weak  side  with  a  solu- 
tion of  sulfate  of  iron.  ("This  solution,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  twenty- four  grains  to  a  pint  of  water,  applied 
after  sunset,  is  absorbed  by  the  leaves,  and  powerfully 
stimulates  their  action  in  drawing  the  sap  from  the 
roots.") 


PRINCIPLES     OF    TRAINING  345 

Bring  forward  the  weak  side  from  the  wall,  and  keep 
the  strong  side  close  to  it. 

Place  a  covering  upon  the  strong  part,  so  as  to  deprive 
it  of  the  light. 

The  sap  develops  the  branches  much  more  vigorously  upon  a 
branch  cut  short,  than  upon  one  left  long, 

Tlie  sap  has  always  a  tendency  to  flow  towards  the  extremity 
of  the  branches,  and  to  make  the  terminal  bud  develop 
ivith  more  vigor  than  the  lateral  ones. 

The  more  the  sap  is  retarded  in  its  circulation,  the  less  wood 
and  the  more  fruit-buds  will  it  develop. 

Apply  to  the  branches  which  grow  from  the  successive 
extensions  of  the  wood,  and  also  to  those  which  spring 
from  them,  the  operations  calculated  to  diminish  their 
vigor. 

Apply  to  the  larger  branches  a  certain  number  of  Gi- 
rardin's  side  grafts.  (These  are  cions  of  fruit -spurs  or 
fruit-buds  set  into  the  twigs  as  common  buds  are  set. 
"These  grafts,  when  fruiting,  will  absorb  a  considerable 
part  of  the  superabundant  sap.") 

Arch  all  the  branches,  so  that  a  part  of  their  extent  be 
directed  towards  the  sun. 

In  the  month  of  February,  make  an  annular  incision 
with  the  hand-saw,  near  the  base  of  the  stem,  rather  less 
than  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  width,  and  sufficiently  deep 
to  penetrate  the  exterior  layer  of  the  wood.  ("The  in- 
cision has  the  effect  of  retarding  the  ascension  of  the 
sap;  the  branches  acquire  less  vigor,  and  the  tree  forms 
fruit.") 

At  the  spring  of  the  year,  uncover  the  foot  of  the  tree 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  expose  the  principal  roots  through- 
out nearly  their  entire  extent,  and  allow  them  to  remain 
in  this  state  during  the  summer. 


346        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

Uncover  the  foot  of  the  tree  at  spring,  and  cut  away 
parts  of  the  roots,  and  then  replace  the  earth. 

Transplant  the  trees  at  the  end  of  autumn,  but  with 
great  care  so  as  to  preserve  all  the  roots.  (This  is  equiva- 
lent to  root -pruning.) 

Every  method  which  conduces  to  dimmish  the  vigor  of  the 
wood  and  to  make  the  sap  flow  to  the  fruit,  tends  to 
augment  the  size  of  the  fruit. 

Graft  upon  stocks  of  a  less  vigorous  species  than  the 
cions. 

Apply  to  the  trees  a  suitable  winter  pruning;  that  is,  do 
not  leave  upon  them  more  branches,  or  parts  of  branches, 
than  is  requisite  for  the  symmetrical  development  of  the 
tree  and  the  formation  of  fruit -bearing  branches. 

Make  fruit -spurs  to  grow  close  upon  the  branches  by 
pruning  them  as  short  as  possible. 

Cut  the  branches  very  close  when  the  flower-buds  are 
formed. 

Mutilate  the  summer  shoots  by  repeatedly  pinching  off 
those  shoots  that  are  not  required  for  the  development  of 
the  size  of  the  tree. 

When  the  fruits  have  attained  a  fifth  degree  of  their 
development,  suppress  a  further  number  of  them. 

Make  an  annular  incision  upon  the  fruit-bearing 
branches  at  the  time  they  expand  their  blossoms  ;  the 
incision  must  not  be  wider  than  three -sixteenths  of  an 
inch.  ("Experience  continually  demonstrates  that,  fol- 
lowing such  incision,  the  fruit  becomes  much  larger  and 
ripens  better."  See  p.  281.) 

Graft  some  of  the  fruit  branches  of  vigorous  trees  with 
the  Girardin  side  graft.  (See  last  page.) 

Place  under  the  fruits,  during  their  growth,  a  support, 
to  prevent  their  stretching  or  twisting  their  foot-stalks  or 
pedicels.  ("If  left  without  support,  it  will  often  happen 


PRINCIPLES    OF    TRAINING  347 

that  the  fruit  grows  unequally,  and  a  twisting  movement 
of  the  stalk  follows,  which  injures  the  sap  vessels.  Be- 
sides, the  weight  of  the  fruit  alone,  hanging  on  its  stem, 
stretches  the  sap  vessels,  and  diminished  their  diameter. 
When  the  fruits  are  supported,  the  sap  penetrates  more 
freely,  and  their  size  is  augmented  accordingly.") 

Keep  the  fruits  in  their  normal  position  during  the  en- 
tire period  of  their  development;  that  is,  with  the  fruit- 
stem  lowermost.  ("  The  sap  acts  with  greater  force  when 
it  flows  upwards;  a  vertical  position  of  the  stalk,  there- 
fore, causes  the  sap  to  ascend  more  easily  and  in  greater 
quantity,  and  the  fruit  will  become  larger.") 

Place  the  fruits  under  the  shade  of  the  leaves  during 
the  entire  period  of  their  growth.  ("If  a  young  fruit  be 
exposed  to  the  power  of  the  sun,  it  will  be  smaller  than 
one  shaded  by  the  leaves,  because  its  skin  will  be  har- 
dened, and  not  give  way  to  the  tendency  of  the  sap  to  ex- 
pand it.") 

Apply  to  the  young  fruits  a  solution  of  sulfate  of  iron. 
("We  have  already  seen  (page  334)  that  a  solution  of  sul- 
fate of  iron  applied  to  the  leaves,  stimulates  their  powers 
of  absorbing  sap.  The  thought  occurred  to  apply  the 
solution  to  the  fruits,  and  the  effect  in  increasing  their 
size  was  extraordinary.  The  solution  should  be  in  the 
proportion  of  twenty -four  grains  to  a  pint  of  water. 
Apply  it  only  when  the  fruit  is  cool.  Repeat  the  opera- 
tion three  times :  when  the  fruits  have  obtained  a  fourth 
part  of  their  development ;  when  they  are  a  little  larger ; 
and  again  when  they  are  three  parts  grown.") 

Graft  by  approach  a  small  shoot  upon  the  peduncle  or 
fruit- spur,  to  which  the  fruit  is  attached  when  it  has  at- 
tained a  third  part  of  its  development.  ("It  has  been 
found  that  consequent  on  this  operation  the  fruit  becomes 
larger,  doubtless  because  the  graft  draws  to  the  peduncle 
a  larger  quantity  of  sap."  See  p.  132  of  "The  Nursery- 
Book,"  Third  Ed.) 


OF  THF. 

UNIVERSITY 


348         SOME     SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

The  leaves  serve  the  important  purpose  of  elaborating  the 
sap  of  the  roots  and  preparing  it  for  the  proper  nourish- 
ment of  the  tree,  and  the  formation  of  buds  upon  the 
boughs.  A  tree,  therefore,  that  is  deprived  of  its  leaves 
is  in  danger  of  perishing. 

The  yearly  extensions  of  wood  should  be  shortened  more  or 
less,  as  the  branches  approach  a  vertical  line,  or  the 
contrary. 

Plants  are  trained  on  walls  for  purposes  of 
decoration  or  for  fruit -bearing.  Fruit  trees  so 
trained  are  protected  from  winter  cold,  and  the 
fruits  receive  greater  warmth  and  sunlight  than 
they  do  when  grown  free.  In  sunny  countries, 
with  hot  weather  at  the  period  of  fruit -ripening, 
fruits  develop  their  full  color  and  flavor  without 
the  aid  of  walls.  In  fact,  in  America  the  south 
face  of  a  wall  may  be  too  hot  for  the  best  re- 
sults with  some  fruits.  On  a  south  wall,  too, 
the  blossoms  open  very  early  in  spring  and  are 
in  danger  of  being  caught  by  frosts.  This  is 
especially  true  of  apricots  and  peaches,  and  for 
them  a  westerly  or  even  northerly  exposure  may 
be  preferable. 

In  Europe,  gardens  are  very  often  surrounded 
with  brick  walls  several  feet  high  ;  and  in  many 
cases,  such  walls  are  built  across  an  area  for  the 
particular  purpose  of  fruit-growing.  The  walls 
of  buildings,  whether  of  brick,  stone  or  wood, 
may  be  used.  An  apricot,  peach,  pear  or  other 
fruit  tree  trained  against  a  barn,  shop,  shed  or 


FRUIT    WALLS  349 

outhouse  is  not  only  a  decoration  but  is  an  ob- 
ject of  much  interest  and,  if  the  location,  variety 
and  training  are  right,  it  should  yield  fruit  of 
extra  quality.  It  should  be  said  that  these 
trained  trees  cannot  compete  with  orchard  trees 
in  quantity  of  fruit,  but  they  should  surpass 
them  in  the  quality  of  the  product. 

Following  is  specific  advice,  from  the  English 
standpoint,  on  the  arrangement  and  construction 
of  walls  and  fences,*  by  Cheal: 

"WALLS. — The  arrangement  and  position  of  walls  will,  of 
course,  depend  upon  the  size  and  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
roundings, etc.,  but  they  should  always  be  arranged,  if  pos- 
sible, in  a  square,  with  the  principal  wall  facing  south,  or 
as  nearly  so  as  practicable.  Where  it  is  possible,  place  the 
walls  in  such  a  position  that  the  outside  as  well  as  the  inside 
borders  may  be  used  for  fruit,  thus  making  use  of  the  whole 
of  the  wall  space;  and  bear  in  mind  that  upon  the  north 
side  many  useful  fruits  may  be  grown.  The  position,  size 
and  requirements  are  so  varied  that  it  is  impossible  in  the 
compass  of  this  work  to  give  more  than  a  general  idea  as  to 
arrangements. 

"The  height  of  the  walls  should  be  from  eight  feet  to 
fifteen  feet,  according  to  circumstances.  In  most  cases  the 
south  wall  may  be  lower,  to  admit  more  sunshine  into  the 
garden ;  and  in  the  case  of  large  gardens,  one  or  more  cross 
walls  may  also  be  introduced.  As  to  their  construction, 
they  should  be  built  without  any  piers.  Architects  have 
generally  a  great  fancy  for  piers,  and  in  many  instances, 
insist  upon  having  them ;  but  walls  can  be  built  without 
piers,  and  they  are  always  a  great  difficulty  and  nuisance  to 

*J.  Cheal,  "Practical  Fruit-Culture,"  London,  1892,  112. 


350        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

the  gardener.  They  frequently  interfere  with  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  trees  when  planting,  and  in  training  they  are  a 
great  trouble,  and  often  cause  much  damage  to  the  trees. 
Another  matter  of  importance  in  construction  is  to  provide 
a  good  permanent  coping  of  tiles  or  stone,  projecting  at 
least  six  inches  from  the  face  of  the  wall.  These  should  in 
all  cases  be  provided  independently  of  any  further  coping 
for  the  protection  of  the  trees  at  the  time  of  flowering. 

"REMOVABLE  GLASS  COPINGS  are  very  useful  for  peaches, 
nectarines  and  apricots.  These  are  only  required  for  a  few 
weeks  in  the  spring,  at  the  time  of  blossoming  and  setting 
the  fruit,  and  should  be  removed  when  no  longer  required. 
Fixed  glass  copings  are  very  objectionable,  as  they  keep  off 
all  rain,  encourage  red  spider  and  other  vermin,  and  neces- 
sitate constant  syringing.  There  are  several  manufactur- 
ing firms  who  make  light  iron  framework  to  carry  the  sashes, 
these  being  so  constructed  as  to  allow  of  their  easy  re- 
moval. 

"  In  all  cases  it  is  a  great  saving  of  labor  to  wire  the  walls 
or  fences.  These  should  be  placed  in  lines  not  exceeding 
nine  inches  apart.  Galvanized  hold-fasts,  tighteners,  and 
all  needful  appliances  are  easily  obtainable  for  the  purpose. 
The  wires  should  be  fixed  at  about  two  inches  from  the  wall. 

"  TYING  to  the  wire  is  much  more  quickly  done  than  nailing 
to  the  wall,  and  does  not  afford  the  same  shelter  to  insect 
pests,  whilst  it  preserves  the  wall  from  injury  due  to  con- 
stant nailing,  and  allows  the  wood  to  ripen  more  thoroughly 
and  evenly.  The  branches  are  also  enabled  to  form  fruit- 
spurs  and  buds  all  round,  and  it  frequently  happens  that 
the  inside  or  back  blossoms  escape  injury  from  frost  which 
damages  the  outer  ones,  and  a  crop  is  thereby  saved.  In 
the  case  of  all  fruits,  however,  and  especially  that  of 
peaches  and  nectarines,  it  is  needful  to  be  very  careful  in 
tying  the  trees  in  order  to  prevent  the  branch  coming  im- 
mediately into  contact  with  the  galvanized  wire.  Many 
instances  have  occurred  of  disease  and  decay  resulting  from 


THE     MAKING     OF     WALLS  351 

this.  There  is,  however,  no  danger  if  the  precaution  is 
always  taken  in  tying  to  cross  the  tie  between  the  branch 
and  the  wire,  so  that  the  branch  is  held  firmly  in  position 
without  coming  into  actual  contact  with  the  wire.  And  the 
danger  may  be  still  further  lessened  by  painting  the  wires 
and  hold -fasts  after  fixing. 

"ESPALIER  FENCES. — These  can  generally  be  placed  to  ad- 
vantage in  a  kitchen  garden,  as  they  occupy  but  little  space, 
and  produce  an  abundance  of  fine  fruit.  They  may  be  used 
as  a  bordering  near  to  the  paths,  or  at  the  back  of  the 
flower  border,  which  is  usually  arranged  on  either  side  of 
the  central  walk,  but  there  are  also  other  positions  outside 
the  kitchen  garden  where  they  can  be  placed  to  advantage. 
If  the  fruit  is  well  grown,  such  fences  present  an  artistic 
appearance,  and  are  admissible  even  in  the  ornamental 
garden,  or  may  be  used  as  a  division  between  the  ornamen- 
tal and  kitchen  garden.  The  fences  themselves  are  usually 
formed  of  galvanized  iron  posts,  with  wires  stretched  be- 
tween. They  require  at  each  end  a  strong  post  made  of 
angle  iron,  with  anchor  feet  and  stays,  to  bear  the  strain 
of  tightening  the  wire.  The  intermediate  posts  need  only 
be  flat  iron  with  anchor  feet.  For  the  ordinary  horizontal 
form  of  training,  five  to  six  feet  in  height  will  be  sufficient, 
but  if  made  high  enough— say  from  seven  to  nine  feet— 
these  fences  are  very  good  for  training  cordons  upon.  Goose- 
berries may  also  be  trained  upon  low  espalier  fences  of  three 
to  four  feet  in  height,  and  when  trained  as  double  cordons, 
or  as  palmettes  with  three  to  five  branches,  they  produce  the 
finest  possible  fruit ;  and  this  mode  is  strongly  recommended 
for  growing  the  choice  dessert  varieties. 

"WIRE  ARCHES.— These  may  sometimes  be  suitably  intro- 
duced into  the  kitchen  garden,  spanning  some  of  the  paths. 
They  occupy  but  little  ground  space,  and  afford  excellent 
means  for  the  training  of  cordons.  They  give  a  pleasant 
shade  to  the  path,  the  trees  are  well  supported,  and  the  fruit 
spread  out  to  the  full  effect  of  the  sun,  and  in  some  respects 


352        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OP    TRAINING 

they  are  better  for  training  the  cordon  trees  upon  than  ordi- 
nary espaliers.  The  turn  at  the  top  gives  the  gentle  check  to 
the  upright  flow  of  sap  so  desirable  and  advantageous  for 
securing  fine  fruit  at  the  base  of  the  tree.  A  garden  in  this 
neighborhood  has  one  of  these  arches  350  feet  in  length, 
spanning  the  central  road  through  the  large  kitchen  garden, 
and  being  fifteen  feet  wide  and  of  the  same  height,  it  forms 
a  magnificent  avenue. 

"WOODEN  FENCES.— It  sometimes  happens  that  wooden 
fences  are  placed  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  available  for 
fruit.  A  wooden  fence  is  in  no  case  so  good  as  a  wall,  as 
in  the  best  of  them  there  is  always  some  draught,  so  that 
there  is  not  the  same  uniform  temperature  maintained  as  in 
the  case  of  walls,  which,  from  their  greater  substance, 
retain  a  certain  amount  of  warmth  during  the  night. 
Nevertheless,  wooden  fences  are  very  useful  for  fruit. 
They  should  always  be  wired  before  planting  the  trees,  as 
it  is  difficult  to  nail  to  the  wooden  fences,  whilst  wire  also 
possesses  other  advantages.  I  have  seen  wooden  fences 
employed  to  great  advantage  in  Guernsey  for  fruit-growing. 
In  one  case  in  particular  I  noticed  a  number  of  light  wooden 
fences,  about  six  feet  high  and  nine  feet  apart,  running 
north  and  south,  and  parallel  to  each  other.  These  were 
covered  on  both  sides  with  cordon -trained  pears,  and  at  the 
time  of  my  visit  they  were  laden  with  heavy  crops  of  re- 
markably fine  fruit,  and  the  cultivator  was  by  these  means 
enabled  to  grow  a  very  large  quantity  in  a  small  space. 

"Many  wooden  fences  surrounding  the  gardens  of  sub- 
urban villas  might  be  turned  to  very  useful  account  for 
growing  fruit,  and  would  afford  healthful  and  interesting 
employment  to  the  over -wrought  brain -worker  in  cultivating 
it,  as  well  as  enable  him  to  supply  his  own  table  with  the 
freshest  of  fruit.  There  are  also  numberless  wooden  fences, 
as  well  as  walls,  in  many  of  our  farms  and  homesteads, 
which  could  be  turned  to  profitable  account  by  covering 
them  with  fruit,  trained  as  above  described. 


ENGLISH    ADVICE  353 

«  BUSH-FRUITS. —Plantations  of  these  are  usually  made 
outside  the  walled- in  garden,  either  below  orchard  trees  or 
in  the  open  ground.  The  latter  is  much  preferable,  as  they 
can  receive  better  treatment  and  safer  protection  from 
birds.  The  last  mentioned  consideration  is  an  important 
one.  Where  choice  dessert  fruit  is  required  it  must  of 
necessity  remain  on  the  trees  until  fully  ripe,  and  some  of 
it  has  to  remain  as  long  as  possible  after  ripening,  to  pro- 
long the  season  of  use.  With  these  the  birds  are  extremely 
troublesome.  The  best  way  of  protecting  them,  and  also 
the  cheapest  in  the  long  run,  is  to  cover  the  plantation  with 
galvanized  wire  netting.*  Erect  sufficient  posts,  and  stretch 
from  these  galvanized  wire  at  a  height  of  six  feet  from  the 
ground.  Then  across  the  wires  fix  the  netting.  Wire  it 
together,  and  fasten  it  to  the  ground  all  round.  If  erected 
as  above,  it  allows  any  one  to  work  inside — to  prune,  clean 
and  gather,  etc. — whilst  effectually  preventing  birds  from 
approaching  the  fruit. 

"The  position  of  the  bush-fruit  outside  the  walled-in 
garden  would,  of  course,  depend  upon  circumstances,  but 
it  can  generally  be  arranged  very  close  at  hand,  and  in  con- 
junction with  it,  the  sea-kale  and  rhubarb  beds,  etc.,  which 
are  somewhat  untidy  in  the  spring,  owing  to  the  copious 
application  of  manure,  etc.,  required.  The  soil  for  the 
bush -fruits  should  be  prepared  by  trenching  and  manuring 
as  described  for  the  inside  kitchen  garden." 

In  the  Old  World,  trees  are  trimmed  in  the  nur- 
sery to  adapt  them  to  particular  modes  of  train- 
ing. In  fact,  the  training  is  often  begun  there. 
Fig.  235  is  a  young  peach  tree  trained  for  a  palm 
shape.  The  main  shaft  is  supported  by  a  stake, 
and  two  long  stakes  are  attached  to  it,  like  a 

*A  bird-netting  is  made  in  this  country.      See  "Principles  of  Fruit- 
Growing,"  296.— L.  H.  B. 
W 


354        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

gable.     Other  stakes  are  tied   across   this  frame, 
and  to  them  the  arms  of  the  tree  are  secured. 
Persons  in  this  country  who  desire  to  train  trees 


235.     Trained  peach  tree,  ready  for  setting  in 
permanent  quarters. 

to  special  shapes,  -should  buy  yearling  trees  of 
the  nurseries.  These  are  provided  with  buds  on 
the  main  trunk  or  shaft,  and  when  they  are 


STARTING    THE    TRAINING  355 

headed -back,  the  required  number  of  shoots  may 
be  secured  in  the  proper  positions.  It  may  even 
be  important  not  to  select  the  largest  yearlings, 
for  on  them  the  lower  buds  may  be  very  weak. 
This  is  particularly  true  with  peach  trees,  for  in 
these  the  lower  side  buds  break  the  first  year,  and 
the  nurseryman  trims  them  off  into  order  to  get  a 
straight  and  long -bodied  tree. 

How  high  to  leave  the  trunk  and  how  many 
branches  to  take  out,  depend  entirely  upon  the 
mode  of  training  which  the  operator  has  in  mind. 
I  have  inserted  various  extracts  which  will  serve 
as  specimen  examples  to  suggest  the  general 
methods  of  procedure. 

Before  undertaking  any  method  of  special  train- 
ing, the  operator  should  apprehend  the  idea  that 
there  is  no  necessary  or  essential  mode  for  any 
fruit.  The  mode  of  training  is  diametrically  op- 
posed to  the  natural  habit  of  the  plant,  and  it 
is,  therefore,  a  mental  and  arbitrary  ideal.  This 
fact  will  be  apparent  if  the  reader  considers  that 
most  of  the  illustrations  in  the  Old  World  literature 
of  the  subject  are  diagrams,  not  pictures.  The 
operator  works  to  geometrical  figures.  He  sets  a 
pattern  ;  and  the  more  nearly  the  plant  approaches 
this  pattern  the  more  satisfactory  is  the  training. 

Some  of  the  common  forms  in  which  fruit 
trees  are  trained  are  suggested  in  the  following 
translation  from  Bois  :  * 

*D.  Bois,  «Le  Petit  Jardin,"  Paris,  264. 


356         SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

"THE  PYRAMID.— An  old  and  a  good  form,  suitable  es- 
pecially for  pear  trees.  Its  advantages  are,  that  it  can  be 
cultivated  in  borders,  where  it  relatively  takes  up  little 
room;  that  it  freely  allows  circulation  of  air  and  light; 
that  it  casts  very  little  shade ;  and  that  it  bears  abundantly. 
The  pyramid  or  cone  consists  of  a  principal  or  vertical  stem, 
covered  with  lateral  branches  from  a  point  thirty  centime- 
ters [a  centimeter  is  about  two-fifths  of  an  inch]  above  the 
ground  to  the  top  of  the  tree.  The  branches,  which  grow 
somewhat  obliquely,  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
distance  of  about  thirty  centimeters,  diminishing  gradually 
in  length  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  thus  forming  a  cone, 
the  largest  diameter  of  which  is  about  one-third  of  the 
total  height. 

"THE  COLUMN  OR  SPINDLE.— This  form  is  adapted  to 
pears  and  apple  trees.  It  has  the  advantage  of  taking  up 
less  room  than  the  pyramid,  and  of  bearing  more  quickly. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  so  long-lived,  and  is  suitable 
for  less  vigorous  varieties  only.  The  column  differs  from 
the  pyramid  only  in  the  fact  that  its  lateral  branches  are 
shorter. 

"THE  VASE. — Around  a  central  stem,  and  at  a  distance 
of  about  fifteen  centimeters  above  the  ground,  arise 
branches  which  grow  first  horizontally  and  then  vertically, 
in  such  a  way  as  to  give  to  the  entire  tree  the  form  of  a 
vase.  The  branches  must  be  separated  from  each  other  by 
a  distance  of  about  thirty  centimeters,  and  they  are  main- 
tained in  this  position  by  tying  them  to  hoops  fastened  to 
stakes  inserted  in  the  ground.  This  form  is  justly  much 
esteemed.  It  freely  allows  a  circulation  of  light  and  air 
through  all  its  parts. 

"THE  BUSH  OR  TUFT.— The  bush  is  suitable  for  currants, 
raspberries,  etc.  From  the  crotch  of  the  plant,  or  at  a  short 
distance  above  the  ground,  arise  branches  which  grow  in 
every  direction.  It  is  simply  necessary  to  train  them  so 
that  they  do  not  interfere  with  each  other. 


BOIS    ON    TRAINING  357 

"THE  HORIZONTAL  CORDON  (Fig.  236)  is  suitable  espe- 
cially for  apple  trees  grafted  on  Paradise  stock,  and  to  the 
less  vigorous  varieties  of  pear  trees  grafted  on  quince  stock. 
This  form  is  especially  to  be  recommended  for  the  borders 
of  walks.  It  consists  of  a  stern  which  first  grows  verti- 
cally, then  bent  at  a  certain  height,  and  is  maintained  in 
this  horizontal  position  by  attaching  it  to  wire.  The  trees 
are  planted  at  a  distance  of  two  or  three  meters  [a  meter 


236.    Apple  trained  to  a  simple  cordon. 

is  nearly  forty  inches]  from  each  other,  and  their  stems, 
when  meeting,  form  a  long,  unbroken  garland  or  wreath, 
which  makes  a  very  pretty  effect. 

"ESPALIER  training  is  to  be  especially  recommended. 
It  is  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees,  and  allows  the 
cultivation,  in  our  latitude,  of  varieties  the  fruits  of  which 
would  not  ripen  at  all,  or  would  ripen  incompletely  in  a 
more  exposed  situation.  When  trained  against  walls,  they 
receive  an  amount  of  heat  sufficient  to  produce  fruit  of  a 
superior  quality.  These  include  peaches,  grapes,  certain 
kinds  of  apricots,  apples,  pears,  etc.  The  utilization  of 
these  walls  is  much  neglected,  and  there  would  often  be 
much  profit  in  covering  with  espaliers  the  fronts  of  houses 
and  all  kinds  of  walls,  especially  when  placed  in  a  good 


358        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

situation,  training  the  trees  according  to  the  form  of  the 
wall.  The  simplest  form  of  espalier  is  the  vertical  cordon, 
which  allows  the  trees  to  be  planted  very  near  together, 
which  soon  bring's  in  a  moderate  return,  and  in  a  few  years 
covers  the  wall.  Like  the  column,  this  form  is  suitable 
only  for  the  less  vigorous  varieties.  It  must  be  trained 
against  a  moderately  high  wall,  for  its  growth  is  consid- 
erably stimulated  by  the  suppression  of  its  lateral  branches, 
so  that  the  principal  stem  has  a  tendency  of  growing  rap- 
idly. Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  cut  them  back  very 
much,  it  produces  an  excessive  development  of  wood,  to 
the  detriment  of  its  productiveness.  A  form  like  a  U,  which 
is  self-explanatory,  is  frequently  employed.  It  is  certainly 
one  of  the  best. 

"THE  CANDELABRUM  (Figs.  237,  240)  is  formed  by  a 
number  of  lateral  branches,  from  three  to  six,  distributed 
regularly  along  the  principal  stem.  The  simple  palmette 
or  palm  leaf  (Fig.  235)  has  a  larger  number  of  lateral 
branches.  The  Palmette  Verrier  differs  from  the  preceding 
only  in  the  fact  that  after  a  certain  distance  its  branches 
grow  vertically.  Palmettes  are  formed  with  6,  7,  8,  10,  12 
branches,  and  even  with  more." 

How  to  train  a  pyramid  standard  pear  tree  is 
explained  as  follows  by  Rivers  :  * 

"If  a  young  gardener  intends  to  plant,  and  wishes  to 
train  up  his  trees  so  that  they  will  become  quite  perfect  in 
shape,  he  should  select  plants  one  year  old  from  the  bud  or 
graft,  with  single  upright  stems ;  these  will,  of  course,  have 
good  buds  down  to  the  junction  of  the  graft  with  the  stock. 
The  first  spring  a  tree  of  this  description  should  be  headed - 
down,  so  as  to  leave  the  stem  about  eighteen  inches  long. 
If  the  soil  be  rich,  from  five  to  six  and  seven  shoots  will  be 


"Thomas  Rivers,  "The  Miniature  Fruit-Garden." 


RIVERS     ON     PYRAMIDS  359 

produced ;  one  of  these  must  be  made  the  leader,  and  if  not 
inclined  to  be  quite  perpendicular,  it  must  be  fastened  to  a 
stake.  As  soon,  in  summer,  as  the  leading  shoot  is  ten 
inches  long,  its  end  must  be  pinched  off;  and  if  it  pushes 
forth  two  or  more  shoots,  pinch  off  all  but  one  to  three 
leaves,  leaving  the  topmost  for  a  leader.  The  side  shoots 
will,  in  most  cases,  assume  a  regular  shape;  if  not,  they 
may  be  this  first  season  tied  to  slight  stakes  to  make  them 
grow  in  the  proper  direction.  This  is  best  done  by  bring- 
ing down  and  fastening  the  end  of  each  shoot  to  a  slight 
stake,  so  that  an  open  pyramid  may  be  formed — for  if  it  is 
too  close  and  cypress -like,  enough  air  is  not  admitted  to 
the  fruit.  They  may  remain  unpruned  till  the  end  of 
August,  when  each  shoot  must  be  shortened  to  within  eight 
buds  of  the  stem. 

"The  second  season  the  tree  will  make  vigorous  growth; 
the  side  shoots  which  were  topped  last  August  will  each 
put  forth  three,  four,  or  more  shoots.  In  June,  as  soon  as 
these  have  made  five  or  six  leaves,  they  must  be  pinched 
off  to  three  leaves,  and  if  these  spurs  put  forth  shoots, 
which  they  often  do,  every  shoot  must  be  pinched  down 
to  one  or  two  leaves,  all  but  the  leading  shoot  of  each  side 
branch;  this  must  be  left  on  to  exhaust  the  tree  of  its 
superabundant  sap,  till  the  end  of  August,  unless  the  tree 
is  being  trained  as  a  compact  pyramid.  The  perpendicular 
leader  must  be  topped  once  or  twice;  in  short,  as  soon  as 
it  has  grown  ten  inches,  pinch  off  its  top,  and  if  it  break 
into  two  or  three  shoots,  pinch  them  all  but  the  leader,  as 
directed  for  the  first  season:  in  a  few  years  most  sym- 
metrical trees  may  be  formed. 

"When  they  have  attained  the  height  of  six  or  eight 
feet,  and  are  still  in  a  vigorous  state,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  commence  root-pruning,  to  bring  them  into  a  fruitful 
state. 

"If  some  of  the  buds  on  the  stem  of  a  young  tree  prove 
dormant,  so  that  part  of  it  is  bare  and  without  a  shoot 


360        SOME     SPECIFIC    MODES    OF   .TRAINING 

where  there  should  be  one,  a  notch,  half  an  inch  wide, 
and  nearly  the  same  in  depth,  should  be  cut  in  the  stem 
just  above  the  dormant  bud.  If  this  be  done  in  February, 
a  young  shoot  will  break  out  in  the  summer.* 

"As  the  summer  pinching  of  pyramidal  pears  is  the 
most  interesting  feature  in  their  culture,  and  perhaps  the 
most  agreeable  of  all  horticultural  occupations,  I  must 
endeavor  to  give  plain  instructions  to  carry  it  out. 

"The  first  season  after  the  planting,  about  the  middle 
or  end  of  June,  the  side  buds  and  branches  will  put  forth 
young  shoots;  each  will  give  from  one  to  three  or  four. 
Select  that  which  is  most  horizontal  in  its  growth  (it  should 
be  on  the  lower  part  of  the  branch,  as  the  tree  will  then 
be  more  inclined  to  spread)  for  a  leader  to  that  branch, 
and  pinch  off  all  the  others  to  three  leaves.  If  these 
pinched  shoots  again  push,  suffer  them  to  make  three 
leaves,  and  then  pinch  them  to  two  leaves;  but  if  the 
horizontal  branch  has  a  good  leader,  it  will  take  off  all  the 
superfluous  sap,  and  prevent  the  pinched  spurs  from  break- 
ing; the  buds  will  only  swell,  and  the  following  season 
they  will  be  fruit -spurs.  The  upper  shoots  of  the  tree, 
say  to  about  two  feet  from  its  top,  should  be  pinched  a 
week  before  the  lower  shoots:  this  gives  strength  to  those 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  tree. 

"In  spring  the  perpendicular  leader  of  the  preceding 
year's  growth  will  put  forth  numerous  shoots,  which  must 
be  pinched  in  June  in  the  following  manner:  those  nearest 
the  base,  leave  six  inches  in  length,  gradually  decreasing 
upwards,  leaving  those  next  the  young  leading  shoot  only 
two  inches  long.  The  leader  of  these  ready-formed  pyra- 
mids need  not  be  shortened  in  summer,  as  directed  for 
younger  trees;  it  may  be  suffered  to  grow  till  the  hori- 


*Bare  places  in  the  stems  of  pyramids,  and  in  the  branches  of  espa- 
liers or  wall  trees,  may  be  budded  towards  the  end  of  August  with 
blossom-buds  taken  from  shoots  two  years  old.  This  is  a  very  inter- 
esting mode  of  furnishing  a  tree  with  fruit-bearing  buds.  Page  345. 


HARDY    ON     PALMETTES  361 

zontal  leaders  are  shortened  in  August,  and  then  left  six 
or  eight  inches  in  length;  but  if  the  trees  are  to  be  kept 
to  six  or  seven  feet  in  height  under  root-pruning,  this 
leading  shoot  may  be  shortened  to  two  inches,  or  even 
cut  close  down  to  its  base.  For  tall  pyramids  of  ten, 
twelve,  or  fifteen  feet,  it  may  be  left  from  eight  to  ten 
inches  in  length  till  the  required  height  be  attained;  it 
may  then  be  cut  to  within  two  inches  of  its  base  every 
season." 

The  methods  to  be  pursued  in  the  training  of 
trees  on  espaliers  may  be  explained  by  a  concrete 
example.  I  choose  an  extract  from  Hardy*  re- 
specting the  training  of  a  palmette  on  an  espa- 
lier. A  simple  palmette  is  a  plant  with  a  single 
erect  stem  and  a  number  of  side  branches,  as  in 
Fig.  235  ;  a  vertical -branched  palmette  or  can- 
delabrum is  shown  in  Fig.  237. 

"We  endeavor  to  obtain  three  branches, — one  to  continue 
the  growth  of  the  trunk,  the  two  others  to  furnish  two 
lowest  lateral  branches.  To  secure  this  result,  we  will 
choose  a  bud  [head -in  the  shoot]  about  thirty  centimeters 
[a  centimeter  is  nearly  two-fifths  of  an  inch]  from  the 
ground.  The  middle  bud  will  push  a  shoot  upwards  and 
the  two  others  obliquely,  but  not  too  near  the  horizontal, 
so  that  they  can  make  a  vigorous  growth.  There  is  nothing 
else  to  do  during  the  growing  season,  if  the  equilibrium 
between  them  maintains  itself. 

"The  vertical -branched  palmette  does  best  in  soils  of 
medium  quality,  as  well  as  for  high  walls.  In  the  first  case, 
the  vertically  of  the  main  branches  assures  to  the  last  a 


*J.  A.  Hardy,  "Traite  de  la  Taille  des  Arbres  Fruitiers,"  Paris,  1865, 
129,  1:J7.     One  of  the  best  books  on  the  subject. 


362         SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

more  sustained  vegetation  than  when  they  are  horizontal. 
In  the  second  case,  they  more  promptly  cover  the  wall,  for 
with  this  form  we  can  plant  the  trees  very  close  to  each 
other,  a  meter  [about  forty  inches]  or  a  meter  and  a  quarter 
apart,  according  to  the  distance  which  we  leave  between 


237.    Candelabrum  espalier  pear  tree. 

the  branches;  the  more  we  stretch  out  the  framework  the 
more  the  sap  is  reserved  for  a  less  number  of  branches. 

"The  manner  of  establishing  this  form  scarcely  differs 
from  that  of  the  simple  palmette.  The  first  year  we  trim 
as  described  in  the  first  paragraph,  only  that  instead  of 
obtaining  two  oblique  lateral  shoots,  as  there  described,  it 
is  necessary  to  cut  the  stem  back  to  only  about  forty  centi- 
meters, and  we  train  the  two  branches  (A)  up  vertically. 
*  *  *  The  second  year  we  pinch  the  shoot  to  obtain  the 
second  pair  of  branches  about  twenty  centimeters  above  the 


BELLAIR    ON    CORDONS  363 

first,  and  we  direct  these  into  the  center  of  the  space  be- 
tween the  first  two  branches,  training  these  framework 
branches  twenty  centimeters  from  each  other.  Then  we 
trim  the  first  branches  (A)  to  a  length  double  that  of  the 
trunk.  The  space  of  twenty  centimeters  is  not  absolute ; 
we  can  make  it  twenty-five  centimeters.  Then,  instead  of 
planting  the  trees  one  meter  apart,  we  can  place  them  a 
meter  and  a  quarter,  in  such  manner  that  the  extremes  of 
the  framework  of  neighboring  trees  shall  be  as  far  apart  as 
are  the  main  branches  of  the  tree  itself.  This  second  dis- 
tance is  preferable,  as  the  branches  receive  more  light  and 
air,  a  condition  which  is  essential  for  good  fruit-bearing. 

"The  following  years  the  treatment  follows  the  method 
indicated,  with  all  the  main  branches  [two  pairs  and  the 
trunk],  but,  however,  taking  care  that  we  leave  the  outside 
branches  (A)  a  little  longer  than  the  others,  so  that  they  can 
maintain  their  predominance.  The  tree  thus  treated  arrives 
at  the  height  of  the  wall  in  the  sixth  year,  if  its  vigor  is 
maintained  and  it  meets  with  no  accident." 

The  treatment  of  a  simple  horizontal  cordon 
(Fig.  236)  is  thus  described  by  Bellair:* 

"When  grown  in  this  way,  the  pear  tree  consists  of  a 
stem  bent  at  a  distance  of  forty  centimeters  above  the 
ground,  then  trained  horizontally  and  covered  with  fruit  - 
bearing  branches.  The  cordons  are  trained  as  much  as 
possible  toward  the  strongest  light.  If  the  plantation  is 
established  on  a  slope,  it  is  necessary  to  train  the  cordons 
toward  the  summit  of  the  slope.  Only  pears  grafted  on 
quince  stock,  and  apple  trees  grafted  on  Paradise  or 
Doucin  stock,  can  be  grown  in  this  way.  Pear  trees  and 
apple  trees  grafted  on  their  own  stock  are  too  vigorous,  as 
they  require  (for  otherwise  they  would  remain  sterile)  more 


*G.  Ad.  Bellair,  "Les  Arbres  Fruitiers,"  Paris,  1891,  164. 


364        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

room  than  the  horizontal  cordon  allows.  One-year-old 
apple  cions  grafted  on  Paradise  stock  must  be  planted  at  a 
distance  of  three  meters  from  each  other.  One-year-old 
apple  cions  grafted  on  Doucin  stock,  and  pears  on  quince 
stock,  must  be  planted  at  a  distance  of  four  meters  from 
each  other.  The  first  year  they  are  cut  at  a  distance  of 
about  sixty  centimeters  above  the  ground,  and  near  a  bud, 
which  is  located  on  the  side  toward  which  the  stem  is  to  be 
inclined.  In  the  autumn  or  in  the  following  spring,  these 
cions  are  gradually  bent.  But  if  the  part  beyond  the  bend 
must  be  strictly  horizontal,  it  is  necessary  that  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  cordon  be  slightly  raised,  in  order  to  facili- 
tate the  flow  of  the  sap,  and  consequently  the  elongation  of 
the  cordon.  From  this  time,  the  yearly  growth  of  the  cor- 
don must  be  cut  in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  two -thirds  or  . 
three -fourths  of  its  length.  It  is  soon  covered  with 
branches,  some  of  which  are  entirely  fertile  (that  is,  bear- 
ing fruit -producing  buds),  while  the  others,  or  sterile  ones, 
must  be  cut  away.  This  kind  of  treatment  prevents  them 
from  obtaining  too  large  a  growth  and  thus  still  more  de- 
stroying its  fertility." 

Excepting  the  grape,  the  training  of  the  peach 
has  probably  been  the  subject  of  more  literature* 
than  that  of  any  other  plant ;  yet  so  different 
are  the  American  conditions  and  ideals  from 
the  European  that  this  technical  literature  has 
almost  no  application  in  this  country.  The 
United  States  is  a  land  of  peaches,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  this  fruit  is  adapted  to  only 
special  localities.  It  is  not  necessary  that  we 


*Consult,   as  an  example,   Brehaut's  "Modern   Peach    Pruner";    also 
Hartwig  "Die  Kultur  des   Pfirsichbaumes  am   Spaliere,"  Weimar,  1886. 


THOMSON    ON    PEACH    TRAINING  365 

train  them  to  walls,  or  that  we  give  them  any 
other  special  or  peculiar  treatment  in  the  way  of 
training.  Those  who  are  interested  in  Old  World 
practices,  however,  or  who  desire  to  train  peaches 
on  walls  or  in  houses,  will  appreciate  the  follow- 
ing extract  from  Thomson  :  * 

"Many  ways  of  training  and  pruning  the  peach  and 
nectarine  have  been  practiced  and  recommended.  French 
horticulturists  especially  have  been  very  successful  in  train- 
ing them  in  several  ways  characterized  by  regularity  and 
neatness.  The  single -cordon  as  well  as  the  multiciple- 
cordon  systems  are  favorite  modes  of  training  in  France. 
Modifications,  partaking  more  or  less  of  the  French  sys- 
tems, have  been  practiced  and  recommended,  especially  by 
Seymour,  in  England.  But  the  ordinary  fan  system  of 
training  is  by  far  the  most  generally  practiced  and  liked. 
It  is,  especially  under  glass,  the  mode  of  training  which 
the  most  successful  forcers  of  the  peach  have  adopted,  and 
it  is  that  which  I  recommend.  Many  grand  old  examples  of 
peach  trees  under  glass  are  to  be  found  in  this  country, 
which  have  all  along  been  trained -on  the  fan  principle,  and 
that  are  yet  in  fine  bearing  condition,  being  well  furnished 
from  top  to  bottom  with  young  bearing  wood.  Taking  a 
young  tree,  which  I  have  recommended  for  planting  as  the 
foundation  of  a  fan-trained  tree,  different  cultivators  who 
are  most  in  favor  of  this  system  of  training  would  deal 
differently  with  the  ten  young  growths  [five  branches  on 
each  side,  and  no  leader,  all  arising  from  near  the  top  of  a 
short  trunk]  with  which  it  is  furnished.  Some  would  cut 
them  all  back  again  to  within  five  or  six  buds  of  their  base ; 
others  would  not  shorten  them  at  all,  but  would  let  them 


*  David  Thomson,  "Handy  Book  of  Fruit  Culture  Under  Glass,"  152, 
with  figures. 


366        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

start  into  growth  with  as  many  young  shoots  as  could  be 
tied  to  the  trellis  without  crowding  them.  What  I  have 
practiced  and  would  recommend  is  a  mean  between  these 
two.  The  two  center  shoots  I  would  shorten  back  to  half 
their  length,  the  other  eight  shoots  to  be  merely  topped 
back  to  solid,  well-ripened  wood.  The  cutting  somewhat 
closely  back  of  the  two  center  ones  makes  it  certain  that 
two  or  three  good,  strong  growths  will  start  from  near  their 
base  to  properly  fill  up  the  center  of  the  tree  with  leaders. 
Each  of  the  other  eight  shoots  should  have  all  their  buds 
removed  by  degrees,  except  one  near  the  baseband  one  or 
two  at  equal  distances  between  it  and  the  leading  bud,  ac- 
cording to  the  length  of  the  shoots;  two  buds  to  be  left 
on  the  under  side— if  the  shoots  are  long  enough  to  have 
room  for  three  on  the  upper  side, — the  buds  on  the  one  side 
to  alternate  in  position  with  those  on  the  other.  These 
lateral  growths,  with  the  leader,  are  enough  to  lay  a  foun- 
dation to  serve  for  the  future  full-grown  tree.  The  lateral 
growths  should  be  allowed  to  grow  without  being  stopped. 
Should  the  leaders  show  signs  of  growing  very  vigorously 
at  the  expense  of  the  side  growths,  stop  them  whenever 
they  show  such  a  tendency.  This  will  cause  them  to  make 
lateral  growths  freely,  and  equally  balance  the  growth  of 
all  the  young  shoots.  This  encouragement  of  lateral 
growths,  especially  on  the  young  wood  in  the  center  of  the 
tree,  gives  sufficient  to  furnish  the  tree  without  having 
recourse  to  the  undesirable  practice  of  first  allowing  a  few 
very  strong  leaders  to  monopolize  the  sap,  and  then  to  cut 
them  down  at  the  winter  pruning.  In  this  way  much  time 
is  gained  in  covering  a  wall  or  trellis  with  bearing  wood. 

"A  young  tree  thus  managed  on  what  may  be  termed  a 
mean  between  the  extension  and  the  cutting -hard -back 
systems  produces  a  comparatively  large,  well -furnished 
tree  the  autumn  after  it  is  planted,  and  one  which  requires 
very  little  or  no  winter  pruning  before  starting  it  into 
another  year's  growth.  If  the  summer  disbudding  and 


THOMSON    ON    THE    PEACH  367 

pinching  of  the  first  season's  growth  have  been  properly 
attended  to,  the  tree  will  be  so  thoroughly  furnished  with 
young  wood  that  all  the  pruning  that  should  be  done  is 
simply  to  remove  any  shoots  that  would  crowd  the  tree. 
The  distance  between  the  shoots  should  not  be  less  than 
three  or  four  inches.  In  February,  1878,  I  planted  a  num- 
ber of  young  peaches  and  nectarines  in  an  orchard -house. 
In  the  autumn  not  a  single  shoot  was  shortened-back,  and 
at  the  close  of  their  second  year's  growth  the  trees  thor- 
oughly furnished,  in  many  instances,  spaces  of  eighteen 
feet  by  thirteen  feet,  and  a  great  many  of  them  sixteen 
feet  by  twelve  feet,  besides  bearing  a  good  crop  the  season 
after  being  planted.  There  are  some  magnificent  trees  at 
Brayton  Hall,  which  Mr.  Hammond,  the  able  gardener 
there,  managed  on  the  extension  system,  and  consequently 
filled  their  allotted  spaces  and  bore  grand  crops  in  half  the 
time  in  which  this  could  have  been  done  by  the  old  cutting- 
back  system. 

"  After  the  trees  have  grown  and  covered  the  space  al- 
lotted to  each,  the  system  of  pruning  must  be  directed  so 
as  to  continually  keep  the  whole  tree  regularly  supplied 
with  young  fruit-bearing  wood.  With  a  view  to  this,  of 
course,  the  yearly  removal  of  old  wood  in  winter,  and  the 
laying  in  of  a  corresponding  amount  of  young  wood  in 
summer,  must  be  carefully  attended  to.  *  *  *  * 

"  Some  make  a  practice  of  cutting  back  the  young  bear- 
ing wood  to  two -thirds  its  length.  I  do  not  advocate  this 
indiscriminately.  Where  the  shoots  are  long  and  not  well- 
ripened,  and  the  buds  consequently  weak,  they  should  be 
shortened-back  to  where  the  wood  is  firm,  and  always  to 
a  strong  wood -bud.  Peach  trees  in  a  healthy  condition 
have  their  buds  in  clusters  of  three— a  wood-bud  in  the 
center,  and  a  fruit-bud  on  each  side  of  it;  and  to  such  a 
cluster  of  buds  they  should  always  be  cut  when  cut  at  all. 

"Well-established  trees  that  have  borne  heavy  crops 
regularly,  and  especially  those  that  have  been  forced  early, 


368        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

generally  make  shorter  and  stronger  growths,  well  studded 
with  strong  clusters  of  buds.  In  this  case  it  is  inadvisable 
to  shorten  them  back  at  all.  A  watchful  eye  must  always 
be  kept  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  tree,  so  that  it  is  not 
allowed  to  get  bare  of  young  fruit -bearing  growths.  It 
need  scarcely  be  said  that,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  the 
young  wood  that  bears,  the  tendency  is  for  it  to  be  in 
greatest  abundance  at  the  top. 

"The  best  guarantee  against  trees  becoming  bare  of 
young  bearing-wood  at  their  lowest  parts,  is  to  annually  cut 
back  a  few  healthy  young  growths  to  two  or  three  eyes, 
and  allow  as  many  of  these  to  bud  and  grow  as  may  be  re- 
quired to  keep  up  the  supply  of  young  wood.  This  is  an 
indispensable  necessity,  from  the  fact  that  portions  of  old 
wood  have  annually  to  be  removed  at  the  top  of  the  tree. 
In  practice,  all  other  things  being  equal,  there  is  little  diffi- 
culty experienced  in  thus  furnishing  the  lower  portions  of 
the  tree  with  bearing -wood.  All  cutting  should  be  effected 
with  a  sharp,  thin  knife;  and  whenever  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  remove  an  old  limb,  the  wound  should  be  painted 
solidly  over  with  white  paint." 

In  order  to  show  the  nicety  to  which  training 
may  be  carried,  the  following  extract  from  Du 
Breuil  will  be  interesting  :  * 

"TRAINING  OF  THE  PEAR  IN  VASE  OR  GOBLET  FORM.— 
Trees  in  the  pyramidal  form  are,  in  some  situations,  liable 
to  injury  from  high  winds.  When  that  is  the  case,  the 
vase  or  goblet  form  may  be  substituted.  But  it  is  not 
otherwise  to  be  preferred,  for  it  requires  as  much  room  as 
the  pyramid  form,  and  does  not  present  so  great  a  fruit - 
bearing  surface. 

"  Trees  in  vase  form  should  leave  a  diameter  of  about  six 

*"The  Scientific  and  Profitable  Culture  of  Fruit  Trees." 


ADVICE  369 

feet  six  inches  (and  an  equal  height),  so  that  the  solar 
rays  may  act  upon  the  whole  interior  surface  of  the  vase. 
An  interval  of  twelve  inches  should  be  left  between  each 
of  the  branches.  Supposing  the  tree  to  be  twenty  feet  in 
circumference,  there  should  be  about  twenty  branches  at 
the  base,  from  which  to  form  the  tree. 

"The  branches  may  either  be  trained  vertically,  or  made 
to  cross  each  other  alternately  right  to  left,  following  an 
angle  of  thirty  degrees,  as  shown  in  Fig.  238.  We  con- 
sider the  latter  form  preferable.  The  sap  acts  more  equally 
throughout  the  entire  extent  of  the  branches,  which  also 
fruit  more  regularly,  and  the  tree  can  better  support  itself 
when  completely  formed. 

"The  method  of  proceeding  to  develop  the  wood  is  as 
follows :  Choose  plants  that  have  been  grafted  a  year,  and 
apply  the  first  pruning;  when  they  have  been  planted  out 
another  year,  cut  them  down  to  sixteen  inches  from  the 
ground.  During  the  summer  select  five  shoots,  and  main- 
tain an  equal  degree  of  vigor  by  pinching.  At  the  second 
pruning,  cut  off  each  of  the  branches  to  sixteen  inches 
from  their  base,  above  two  buds  growing  laterally,  so  as  to 
make  each  of  the  branches  fork ;  lower  the  branches  a  little 
and  dispose  them  regularly  round  the  circumference  of  the 
stem  by  means  of  a  hoop.  During  the  summer  equalize  the 
vigor  between  the  ten  shoots  that  have  now  been  obtained. 
At  the  third  pruning,  cut  back  each  of  the  ten  shoots  to 
twelve  inches  from  their  base,  to  make  them  fork  a  second 
time.  Incline  the  branches  again,  and  equalize  the  spaces 
between  them  by  means  of  two  hoops,  the  uppermost  being 
the  larger.  Treat  the  twenty  shoots  that  have  grown  during 
the  summer  in  the  same  manner  as  the  previous  ones.  At 
the  fourth  pruning,  suppress  only  the  third  of  the  length  of 
the  new  branches,  and  again  incline  them  downwards  to  an 
angle  of  about  twenty  degrees,  then  raise  the  ends  of  the 
branches  in  a  vertical  position  at  about  three  feet  from  the 
stem,  and  keep  them  in  that  position  by  means  of  addi- 
x 


370        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

tional  hoops.  During  the  summer  allow  only  one  terminal 
bud  to  develop.  When  the  time  arrives  for  the  fifth  opera- 
tion, cross  the  branches  at  the  place  of  their  second  fork- 
ing, directing  them  alternately  right  and  left,  inclined  to  an 


238.     Outline  of  pear  trained  in  vase  form. 

angle  of  thirty  degrees.  Fig.  239  shows  the  plan  of  a  pear 
tree  trained  in  this  form,  and  how  the  branches  should  be 
crossed.  The  new  extensions,  obtained  during  the  previous 
summer,  must  be  left  entire,  and  so  on  from  year  to  year, 
until  the  tree  has  attained  its  proper  size.  The  inclined 
position  of  the  branches  will  cause  them  to  put  forth  nu- 
merous shoots,  each  of  which  must  be  trained  in  a  spiral 
direction,  to  be  arrested  only  when  the  tree  attains  a  height 
of  about  six  or  seven  feet,  when  it  will  be  fully  formed, 
and  resemble  Fig.  238. 


VASE -FORM    TREES  371 

"As  the  tree  increases  in  height,  each  of  the  branches 
must  be  grafted  together  by  approach  [inarching]  at  each  of 
the  points  where  they  cross.  This  will  give  great  strength 


239.     Plan  of  the  tree. 

and  solidity  to  the  tree,  and  enable  it  to  dispense  with  any 
other  support  when  the  wood  is  completely  established. 

"  The  fruit  branches,  which  are  not  shown  on  the  figures, 
are  formed  and  kept  in  bearing  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
pyramid  trees." 

Before  leaving  this  part  of  our  discussion,  -we 
may  look  at  the  pictures.  With  the  exception 
of  Figs.  238,  239,  242,  these  are  made  from  photo- 
graphs taken  at  various  times  by  the  writer. 
Fig.  235  is  a  palm -leaf  (or  palmette)  peach  tree, 
ready  for  planting  against  a  wall.  This  tree  was 
on  exhibition  at  the  Gartenban  Austellung,  at  Ham- 
burg, in  1897.  Fig  236  is  a  cordon  dwarf  apple 


372        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

from  Saxony.  The  wire  is  about  twenty  inches 
above  the  ground,  and  the  single  arm  or  trunk 
of  the  tree  extends  about  eight  feet.  Fig.  237 
is  a  sketch  of  part  of  an  espalier  pear  in  the 
grounds  of  the  Gartenbau  Hochschule,  near  Berlin. 


240.     Three-arm  espalier. 


Fig.  240,  from  Germany,  is  part  of  a  three- arm 
candelabra  espalier  apple  tree.  Fig.  241  is  an 
old  espalier  Greening  apple  tree  growing  in  west- 
ern New  York.  The  trellis  has  long  since  been 
removed  and  the  tree  now  supports  itself,  although 
extending  over  a  space  about  thirty  feet  long. 
This  is  not  a  good  specimen  of  training,  but  it 
shows  how  readily  a  dwarf  apple  can  be  made 


PICTURES    OF    TRAINED    TREES 


373 


to  assume  a  horizontal  direction.     Fig.  242  is  a 
diagram   of   a  wall- trained   apricot.      Fig.  243   is 


£ 

241.     Old  apple  espalier  in  New  York. 

a  dwarf  pear  trained  in  fan -shape  on  a  wall,  in 
England.     Fig.  244   is   a   pear  tree   covering   the 


242.    Wall-trained  apricot  of  palmette  form. 


south   front   of    a   cottage    in    southern   Bavaria. 
The   photograph  was   taken   in  August,   and   the 


374        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

season's  growths  are  seen  projecting  beyond  the 
roof -line. 

TREES  AND  BUSHES  IN  POTS 

Many  fruit  trees  are  successfully  grown  in  pots 
or  boxes,  being  used  either  for  forcing  purposes 
or  for  fruit -bearing  at  their  normal  season.  Such 


243.     Fan -trained  dwarf  pear. 

trees,  unless  used  for  forcing,  are  chiefly  valuable 
as  ornamentals  and  curiosities,  although  the  fruits 
should  be  of  the  very  finest  quality.  Fig.  245  is 
an  apple  tree  several  years  old,  in  full  bearing. 
It  is  in  a  sixteen -inch  pot.  Trees  of  this  size 
should  ripen  from  ten  to  twenty-five  apples.  Pot- 
grown  apples  and  pears  should  be  dwarfs. 


TREES     IN     POTS 


375 


Peaches  and  apricots  on  their  own  roots  do  well 
in  pots.     Cherries  are  usually  worked  on  Mahaleb 


244.     Good  specimen  of  wi 


for  this  purpose,  and  plums  are  often  grown  on 
Myrobalan  roots.  Trees  should  bear  in  the  third 
or  fourth  year. 


376         SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

The  following  sketch  from  Warneken*  conveys 
a  general  idea  of  the  method  of  trimming  and 
training  pot -fruits  in  the  pyramid  form  (which 
is  the  most  popular  shape) : 

"  The  form  of  trees  is  given  but  little  attention  by  many 
pot-fruit  tree  growers,  they  looking  only  to  large  yields  of 
fruit.  Others,  again,  desire  to  give  pot -fruit  trees  every 
conceivable  artificial  form,  even  espalier  forms  having 
been  recommended.  Although  it  must  be  constantly  our 
aim  to  produce  a  large  fruit  yield,  it  is  not  necessary, 
thereby,  to  neglect  the  form  of  the  trees  ;  and  a  pleasing 
form  with  a  large  yield  can  be  readily  combined. 

"FORM  OF  THE  TREES. — Our  pot  trees  must  at  times  be 
set  closely  together,  and  it  is,  therefore,  not  desirable  to 
produce  such  large  forms  as  demand  much  space;  as,  e.  g., 
crown  trees  or  trees  of  cup  shape.  If,  however,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  train  these  forms  in  pots,  their  pruning  may  be 
studied  in  a  pruning  book.  We  shall  not  describe  this 
pruning,  as  we  do  not  care  to  puzzle  the  beginner  with  so 
many  artificial  forms,  but  we  shall  suggest  such  simple 
and  easily  made  forms  as  appeal  to  a  rational  culture,  and 
which  are  the  result  of  many  years  of  experience.  For 
such  varieties  of  fruits  as  in  their  nature  are  suitable  to 
the  pyramidal  form,  this  remains  the  best.  We,  therefore, 
give  our  trees,  with  advantage,  only  the  following  form. 

"Apples  and  pears  we  train  to  a  narrow  shape, — in  the 
full  grown  condition  a  pyramid  about  fifty  to  sixty  centi- 
meters wide  [a  centimeter  is  about  two -fifths  of  an  inch]. 
Peaches,  plums,  cherries,  apricots  and  figs  we  train  to  a 
pyramidal  bush,  which,  however,  should  not  be  over  sixty 
centimeters  wide  at  the  bottom.  With  peaches  and  plums, 
the  more  practi'cal  narrow  pyramids  recommended  for 

*H.  B.  Warneken,  "Die  Kultur  des  Obstbaumes  im  Topfe",  Frank- 
furt  a.  d.  Oder,  1889,  33. 


TREES    IN    POTS 


377 


apples  and  pears,  also  columnar  pyramids,  may  be  used. 
Grapes  cultivated  in  pots  are  trained  to  so-called  spiral 
cordons,  which  have  a  corkscrew -like,  twisted  stem  car- 
ried on  three  stakes. 

"PRELIMINARY  TRAINING,  IN  ITS  FIRST  YEAR,  OF  A  TREE 
DESTINED   FOR  POT  -  CULTURE.— Peaches  and  other  fruits  can 


245.     Pot-grown  apple 
in  full  bearing. 


246.     Pot  tree  in 
July  of  its  sec- 
ond year. 


247.     Showing 

how  the  tree  is  to 

be  pruned. 


be  prepared  for  pot  culture  in  their  first  year.  If  we  have 
personally  budded  our  trees,  we  pinch  off  the  tip  of  the 
young  shoot  which  appears  in  early  summer,  according  to 
its  strong  or  weak  development,  when  it  has  grown  to  a 


378         SOME     SPECIFIC    MODES    OP    TRAINING 

length  of  thirty  to  fifty  centimeters.  As  a  result,  the 
buds  at  the  side  will  develop  in  the  first  year  into  small 
shoots.  As  soon  as  these  have  formed  four  or  five  buds, 
they  are  pinched  back  to  two  or  three  buds.  If  the 
highest  of  these  lengthening  buds  develops  a  strong  shoot, 
and  if  the  side  shoots  are  backward  and  irregularly  placed, 
the  main  shoot  can  be  pinched  again.  The  trees  thus 
treated  during  the  first  year  have  a  stronger  and  more 
compact  form,  and  all  the  lower  buds  are  better  developed. 
We  gain  time,  therefore,  by  making  the  best  of  the  first 
year,  particularly  with  peaches,  and  secure  more  rapidly 
bearing  trees. 

"THE  ONE-YEAR-OLD  TREE,  generally  smooth  and  un- 
branched,  will  be  at  our  disposal.  If,  however,  too  early 
side  shoots  have  been  developed,  they  must  be  removed  at 
their  base  on  the  stem,  in  order  net  to  secure  a  confused 
tree.  We  now  cut  all  such  imbranched  one-year-old  trees 
of  all  fruits  to  the  length  noted  for  peaches,  that  is,  fifty 
centimeters,  and  to  a  strong  bud.  With  stone  fruits  we 
now  choose  three  to  four  buds  pointing  in  different  direc- 
tions, beginning  above  fifteen  centimeters  from  the  ground, 
and  crescent -like  cuts  are  made  with  a  sharp  knife  into  the 
bark  above  each  of  these.  If  all  the  buds  on  these  stems 
develop,  we  retain  but  six  or  seven  of  those  on  top  and 
pinch  off  the  lower  ones,  as  our  pyramids  shall  not  branch 
immediately  above  the  soil,  but  shall  first  make  a  stem  fif- 
teen to  twenty  centimeters  high,  in  order  that  the  fruits 
shall  not  be  too  near  the  soil  and  get  dirty  and  be  of  lesser 
value.  The  uppermost  shoot  is  fastened  perpendicularly  to 
the  projecting  stub  (Fig.  246)  The  remaining  side  shoots 
we  try  to  have  equally  strong,  and  we  secure  this  by  pinch- 
ing back  the  stronger.  All  shoots  have  their  points  pinched 
off  as  soon  as  they  are  thirty  centimeters  long.  From  July 
to  August  we  remove  the  stub  which  projects  beyond  the 
uppermost  branch  (Fig.  246) .  On  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
apricots,  plums,  and  cherries  we  have  nothing  to  do  other 


TREES    IN    POTS  379 

than  what  has  been  mentioned,  and  to  keep  them  in  health 
and  free  from  pests.  If  the  plant  lice  are  not  promptly 
removed,  they  greatly  injure  the  young  trees  while  they  are 
yet  developing  their  structure,  as  they  suck  out  completely 
the  young  shoots  so  that  they  dry  out.  If  we  have  one- 
year-old  stems  of  pears  and  plums  which,  during  the  first 
year,  have  clothed  themselves  all  over  and  in  a  regular 
manner  with  shoots,  beginning  fifteen  centimeters  above 
the  ground,  we  cut  these  back  to  three  buds.  The  stem 
itself  is  taken  back  one -third  its  length,  and  is  then  and 
ever  thereafter  cut  to  a  spur  or  stub. 

"THE  SECOND  YEAR.— At  the  winter  pruning  of  the  sec- 
ond year,  the  side  shoots  of  seed  fruits  are  reduced  to  four 
to  six  buds  and  those  of  the  stone  fruits  to  three  to  four 
buds.  With  the  seed  fruits,  we  try  to  call  forth  weak 
shoots  from  all  buds  by  means  of  cross-cuts  above  them. 
In  the  case  of  stone  fruits,  this  must  never  be  done,  as 
by  this  means  the  outflow  of  sap  and  the  so-called  bleed- 
ing would  be  induced.  The  stem,  when  strong  and  over 
thirty  centimeters  long,  is  cut  back  to  one -half  its  length, 
or  to  about  six  to  eight  buds.  Weak  and  short  shoots  up 
to  twenty  centimeters  remain  uncut.  The  summer  pruning 
or  pinching  back  is  practiced  on  all  trees.  As  soon  as 
the  strongest  shoots  have  developed  six  buds,  they  are 
pinched  back  to  four  buds,  and  this  treatment  is  gradually 
given  to  the  others  as  they  develop.  If  the  shoots  should 
again  grow  out,  the  new  growth  is  pinched  back  to  two 
buds,  and  this  treatment  is  continued  all  summer,  so  that 
every  new  shoot  is  reduced  to  two  buds.  This  repeated 
pinching  has  for  its  object  the  thickening  of  the  buds  at 
the  base  of  the  shoot  and  to  change  them  to  fruit -buds. 
The  bearing  wood  in  the  seed  fruits  can  bear  fruit  for 
years,  and  it  is  therefore  only  necessary  to  induce  the 
gradual  change  of  the  woody  shoots  into  bearing  wood. 

"The  tree  in  July  of  its  second  year  is  shown  in  Fig.  246. 
Z  is  the  stub  to  be  removed  in  July  at  the  point  S.  At  a 


380        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

are  points  at  which  side  shoots  are  pinched  back.  Fig.  247 
shows  the  winter  pruning  on  the  two -year -old  tree.  S, 
points  at  which  all  side  shoots  are  to  be  cut.  1,  2,  3,  buds 
which  are  to  receive  cross-cuts.  St,  the  bud  destined  to 
lengthen  the  stem;  it  must  be  above  the  point  of  last 
year's  cut,  as  at  O;  St,  up  to  *,  the  new  stub;  i,  point  at 
which  the  shoot  is  cut. 

"In  the  stone  fruits,  the  wood  which  has  borne  dies  off, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  have  new  bearing  wood  each  year. 
We  must,  therefore,  prune  in  such  a  manner  that  con- 
tinually new  bearing  wood  for  the  next  year  is  formed. 
Therefore,  on  every  fruiting  branch  of  a  peach  there  should 
be  two  leaf-buds  at  its  base  as  a  reserve.  On  the  branches 
of  the  peach  are  found  buds  of  varying  appearance, — thick 
roundish,  and  thin  pointed.  The  former  are  'flower-buds 
and  the  latter  leaf-buds.  It  happens  at  times  that  a  flower- 
bud  stands  alone,  generally  on  thin  bearing  branches,  and 
again  that  a  leaf-bud  stands  alone,  as  on  strong  shoots  and 
young  stems.  We  may  also  find  a  flower-bud  and  a  leaf- 
bud  or  two  flower-buds  united,  and  finally  a  pointed  leaf- 
bud  between  two  round  flower-buds.  Our  peach  trees  are 
therefore  cut  for  the  first  time  in  the  early  spring,  when 
even  the  beginner  can  distinguish  flower  and  leaf -buds. 
On  many  strong  branches  nothing  but  leaf-buds  are  found, 
on  single,  thin  fruit  branches  again  only  flower-buds.  The 
latter,  we  may  as  well  mention  here,  are  the  worst,  as  they 
must  die  from  lack  of  leaf -buds.  The  best  fruit  branches 
are  studded  with  triple  and  double  buds,  and  have  at  their 
base  some  simple  leaf-buds.  The  majority  of  fruit 
branches  have  only  simple  and  double  buds  and  at  the  point 
a  leaf -bud.  Excellent  fruit -bearers  are  the  very  short 
cluster  spurs  but  a  few  centimeters  long.  These  have  at 
their  tip  a  whole  bouquet  of  flower-buds  and  a  leaf-bud  in 
the  center,  and  these  are  not  pruned.  Our  task  is,  then,  to 
keep  the  shortest  possible  branches,  and  allow  those  to  bear 
fruit  which  have  leaf-buds  above  their  flowers,  in  order  to 


PEACHES    IN    POTS  381 

lead  away  the  superfluous  sap  not  necessary  for  the  fruit. 
At  the  same  time,  these  branches  must  have  at  their  base 
several  leaf -buds  to  which  we  may  cut  back  and  cause  the 
production  of  bearing  wood  for  the  next  year.  Long  and 
thin  branches,  with  but  single  or  double  flower -buds  and  a 
leaf -bud  at  the  point,  can  bear  fruit,  but  leave  behind  only 
bare  places  in  the  fall  when  they  die.  It  is,  finally,  to  be 
observed,  in  cutting-back,  that  this  should  not  be  done  to  a 
single  flower-bud,  as  otherwise  the  shoot  dies  off  to  the  next 
leaf-bud.  Those  shoots  on  which  the  dead  flowers  fall  off 
can  be  cut  back  immediately  after  flowering  to  the  two 
leaf -buds  at  the  base.  An  observance  of  these  directions 
will  make  it  an  easy  matter  to  prune  peaches  in  the  spring. 
The  pyramidal  form  which  is  to  be  given  must,  however, 
always  be  kept  in  mind  in  determining  the  position  of  the 
branches  to  be  saved. 

"THE  THIRD  AND  FOLLOWING  YEARS.  —  In  the  winter 
pruning  of  the  third  and  following  years,  the  shoots  of  the 
year  before,  on  all  fruits,  are  cut -back  to  three  to  four  buds, 
and  here  it  is  that  the  pyramidal  form  must  be  looked  after. 
All  trees  clothe  themselves  with  weak  bearing  wood  at  the 
base  of  last  year's  stem,  and  the  pruning  of  the  stem 
growth  must  be  done  accordingly.  If  it  were  cut  too  long, 
many  of  the  buds  would  not  grow,  and  bare  places  would 
result.  Too  heavy  pruning  would  cause  the  formation  of 
strong,  woody  shoots  at  the  lower  part  of  the  tree.  With 
our  seed  fruit  and  stone  fruit  pyramids  in  pots,  the  branches 
must  not  stand  too  thick  or  shade  each  other.  At  all  times 
light  and  air  must  reach  the  stem  in  order  to  benefit 
the  fruits.  The  removal  of  single  large  stems  in  later 
years  will  make  this  possible.  It  may  also  be  mentioned 
here  that  the  dry  wood  forming  in  the  tree  in  later  life 
should  be  removed.  In  the  third,  as  in"  all  following  years, 
the  summer  pinching-back  is  executed  the  same  as  in  the 
first  year,  and  in  the  stone  fruits,  particularly  in  peaches, 
provide  for  the  fruiting  wood  in  the  coming  year.  Thus 


382        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

we  build  out  our  pyramid  in  the  pot,  and  by  means  of  the 
regular  use  of  the  stub  to  tie  to,  the  lengthening  shoot  is 
given  a  pleasing,  erect  form.  The  wood  shoot  will  moderate 
with  increasing  fruitfulness,  so  that  in  later  years  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  cut  it  much,  and  pinching  in  the  summer 
will  be  sufficient." 

The  growing  of  cherry  trees  in  pots,  by  Mr. 
Rivers,  one  of  the  best  English  growers,  is  thus 
described :  * 

"The  method  of  growing  cherries  in  Eivers'  orchard- 
houses  is  given  below  in  detail,  with  plans  of  a  house. 
Most  of  the  trees  are  grafted  on  cherry  stock,  except  the 
Duke  cherries  and  Early  Rivers  and  Governor  Wood,  which 
are  grafted  on  Mahaleb  stock.  They  are  never  lifted  or 
replanted  before  potting. 

"Early  in  autumn  one  and  two-year-old  trees  are  taken 
up,  their  roots  shortened  so  that  they  can  be  put  into  the 
pots  without  breaking,  and  planted  in  eight  or  twelve -inch 
pots.  This  potting  must  be  done  carefully,  and  the  trees 
must  be  set  so  deep  that  the  big  roots  near  the  surface  will 
be  covered  with  an  inch  of  soil.  Cover  the  bottom  of  the 
pots  with  a  good,  thick  layer  of  drainage.  The  soil  used  in 
potting  is  a  light,  sandy  loam,  enriched  with  one -third  of 
well -decayed  fertilizer.  It  is  important  to  firm  the  soil  well 
around  and  among  the  roots.  Fill  it  in  by  degrees, '  in 
small  quantities,  and  beat  it  down  firmly  all  through  the 
pot,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  roots.  After  potting,  the 
trees  are  set  in  a  sheltered  place  outdoors,  the  pots  being 
covered  with  leaves.  If  the  soil  is  moist  enough  when  the 
trees  are  potted,  they  will  not  need  watering. 

"When  spring  comes  the  tree  must  be  thinned  out  and 
the  pots  plunged  one -third  of  their  depth  in  the  earth. 


*A.  K.  Anderson  in  "American  Garden," xiii.,  594. 


CHERRIES    IN    POTS  383 

The  trees  remain  here  all  the  summer,  are  watered  carefully 
every  morning  when  the  weather  is  bright  and  dry,  and 
syringed  with  pure  water  if  the  greenfly  is  troublesome. 
In  July,  when  the  trees  are  well  rooted,  a  top-dressing  of 
stable-manure  and  kiln-dust  in  equal  parts  is  given  the 
trees.  A  few  days  before  the  top-dressing  is  used  it  is 
spread  out  in  thin  layers  somewhere  outdoors,  and  soaked 
several  times  with  liquid  manure.  It  is  applied  to  the  soil 
in  the  pots,  in  layers  two  inches  thick  near  the  rims,  but 
thinner  near  the  stems  of  the  trees.  This  top-dressing 
greatly  improves  and  strengthens  the  trees  for  the  coming 
year. 

"After  growing  in  pots  one  summer,  trees  are  fit  to  be 
sold  the  following  autumn  or  spring.  From  Rivers'  nur- 
sery three  or  four  hundred  potted  cherry  trees  are  sold 
yearly,  the  number  increasing  constantly.  Old  cherry  trees 
that  have  been  cultivated  in  pots  for  years  are  kept  during 
winter  in  one  of  the  orchard -houses.  When  spring  comes 
and  their  buds  begin  to  start,  the  pots  are  plunged  up  to 
the  rim  in  the  ground  in  the  cherry-house. 

"The  pyramidal  form  is  best  and  most  used  for  potted 
cherry  trees.  Pruning  is  not  often  necessary  the  first  year 
after  potting,  for  the  strength  of  the  tree  goes  to  form  short 
fruit-branches;  but  after  the  trees  are  well  rooted,  strong 
shoots  are  sent  out  in  summer.  Summer  pruning  consists 
mainly  in  pinching  back  these  strong  shoots  to  six  or  seven 
leaves  each.  If  after  this  first  stopping  they  grow  out 
again,  they  are  again  pinched-back.  On  the  leading 
branches,  side -shoots  that  are  not  needed  to  fill  empty 
spaces  or  make  new  leaders,  are  stopped  at  the  third  leaf. 
The  sour  cherries,  which  form  young  buds  better  on  the 
side-shoots,  might  be  pruned  less.  Much  winter  pruning 
is  not  needed  for  trees  that  have  been  well  stopped  in  sum- 
mer. Winter  pruning  must  be  done  as  soon  as  leaf  and 
bloom-buds  can  be  distinguished.  It  is  done  upon  the  same 
principle  as  outdoor  pruning,  but  as  the  room  in  orchard- 


384        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

houses  is  limited,  all  growth  must  soon  be  pruned  into  fruit- 
branches. 

"After  the  cherries  are  all  gathered,  the  trees  are  plunged 
outside  in  a  sunny,  sheltered  place,  and  left  there  until 
repotting  time  in  October  or  November.  Trees  that  have 
been  potted  but  one  year  seldom  need  larger  pots  at  this 
time,  so  two  or  three  inches  of  the  top  soil  in  their  pots  is 
taken  out  and  replaced  with  fresh.  Larger  pots  are  given, 
in  after  years,  when  these  young  trees  become  root-bound 
and  require  them.  Cherry  trees  ought  to  be  repotted  every 
other  year." 

Various  forms  of  training  pot -grown  goose- 
berries, as  grown  by  James  Veitch  &  Sons, 
Chelsea,  England,  are  shown  in  Figs.  248,  249, 
250.* 

OTHER  SPECIAL  MODES  OF  TRAINING 

Plants  are  often  trained  so  as  to  allow  them  to 
be  bent  to  the  ground  in  the  fall,  and  covered  for 
winter  protection.t  J.  T.  Macomber  describes! 
the  training  of  peach  trees  for  this  purpose,  and 
I  insert  a  part  of  the  account  as  an  example  of 
this  kind  of  training.  The  tree  "should  be  planted 
where  it  is  wanted  to  grow,  and  all  branches  must 
be  cut  off,  leaving  the  central  shoot,  upon  which 
allow  only  one  bud  to  grow.  The  tree  should  be 
visited  every  week  or  two,  and  all  branches  that 


"These  cuts  are    used  by  courtesy  of   "The    Gardeners'    Chronicle," 
where  they  appeared  in  the  issue  of  July  31,  1897. 
tSee  "Principles  of  Fruit  Growing",  Chap.  I. 
t«  American  Garden,  "xi.    231. 


248.     Pyramidal  gooseberry  plant. 


386         SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OF    TRAINING 

have  started  on  the  new  shoot  should  be  broken 
off,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  leaf  below  it. 


249.  Cup-shaped  gooseberry.          250.     Training  of  gooseberry. 

These  little  branches  should  not  be  allowed  to  get 
more  than  an  inch  or  two  long.  The  object  is  to 
get  a  long,  slender  cane  without  branches.  Fig. 
251  shows  a  tree  in  training ;  a  a  are  the  little 


LAYING -DOWN    TREES 


387 


branches  near  the  top  that  should  be  broken  off. 

All  those  below  them  have  been  removed.  About 
four  or  five  weeks  before  frost  may 
be  expected,  stop  breaking  off  the 
branches,  so  as  to  allow  the  wood 
to  ripen  enough  to  stand  the  win- 
ter. On  the  approach  of  freezing 
weather,  place  a  round  block  of 


251.  Diagram  to 
illustrate  train- 
ing of  peach. 


252.     The  tree  at  bearing  age. 


wood  on  the  ground  at  the  root  of  the  tree, 
and  slowly  bend  the  cane  down  over  it  and 
fasten  there  with  a  hooked  stick  driven  into  the 
ground.  Then  cover  the  cane  with  a  couple  of 
boards  nailed  together  to  form  a  trough. 

"When  frost  is  out  of   the   ground   in  spring, 
remove  the  covering  and  straighten  up  the  tree. 


388        SOME    SPECIFIC    MODES    OP    TRAINING 

After  it  has  begun  to  grow,  cut  or  rub  off  all  the 
branches  and  allow  but  one  bud  to  grow,  and  treat 


253.     Inarched  elms. 


the  tree  just  as  you  did  the  previous  season.  At 
the  end  of  the  third  season  you  will  probably  have 
a  cane  long  enough  for  your  purpose.  Now  the 


INARCHING  389 

tree  should  not  be  lifted  in  the  spring,  but  is 
kept  in  a  horizontal  position  and  allowed  to 
grow  at  the  end  and  form  a  head,  which  should 
be  trained  fan- shaped  and  parallel  with  the  hori- 
zontal trunk  (Fig.  252). 

"There  should  be  a  soft  pad  of  straw  or  cloth 
between  the  tree  trunk  and  the  block.  On  the 
approach  of  freezing  weather,  loosen  the  tree  from 
the  supporting  stake,  and  after  having  placed 
some  evergreen  boughs  on  boards  on  the  ground 
to  keep  the  twigs  off  the  earth,  bend  the  head  of 
the  tree  down  side  wise  to  the  ground,  weight  it, 
if  necessary,  and  then  cover  the  whole  head  with 
boards."  The  trunk  will  be  flexible  enough  to 
allow  the  head  to  be  laid  down  every  winter. 
Protect  the  trunk  from  sun-scald. 

Trees  and  branches  may  be  made  to  grow  to- 
gether in  various  fantastic  ways  if  they  are  securely 
bound  to  each  other.  The  union  takes  place  more 
rapidly  if  the  bark  is  removed  from  the  conjoined 
surface  and  the  exposed  parts  of  the  wounds 
covered  with  wax.  This  is  a  species  of  inarching. 
However,  simply  binding  together  young  branches 
will  cause  them  to  unite,  if  the  parts  are  in  very 
intimate  contact  and  if  they  cannot  move  upon 
each  other  when  shaken  by  wind.  Fig.  253  shows 
an  arch  made  by  binding  four  elms  together. 


CHAPTER  VII 


AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING  — 
GENERAL    SKETCH 

Pruning  and  training  the  grape  are  perplexed 
questions,  even  to  those  who  have  spent  a  life- 
time in  grape- growing.  The  perplexity  arises  from 
several  diverse  sources,  as  the  early  effort  to  trans- 
plant European  methods,  the  fact  that  many 
systems  present  almost  equally  good  results  for 
particular  purposes  and  varieties,  and  the  failure 
to  comprehend  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
operations. 

It  is  sufficient  condemnation  of  European  meth- 
ods, when  applied  in  eastern  America,  to  say  that 
the  American  grapes  are  distinct  species  from  the 
European  grapes,  and  that,  consequently,  they  are 
different  in  habit.  This  fact  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  apprehended  clearly  by  the  early  Ameri- 
can grape -growers,  even  after  the  native  varieties 
had  begun  to  gain  prominence.  American  viti- 
culture, aside  from  that  upon  the  Pacific  slope, 
which  is  concerned  with  the  European  grape,  is 
an  industry  of  very  recent  development.  It  was 
little  more  than  a  century  ago  that  the  first  Ameri- 
can variety  gained  favor,  and  so  late  as  1823  that 

(390) 


EVOLUTION    OF     GRAPE    TRAINING 


391 


the  first  definite  attempt  was  made  in  Adlum's 
"Memoir  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine  in  Amer- 
ica/' to  record  the  merits  of  native  grapes  for 
purposes  of  cultivation.*  Even  Adlum's  book 
was  largely  given  to  a  discussion  of  European 
varieties  and  practices.  In  1846  "Thomas7  Fruit 
Culturist"  mentioned  only  six  "American  hardy 
varieties,"  and  all  of  these,  excepting  the  Catawba, 
are  practically  not  in  cultivation  at  the  present 
time.  The  Concord  appeared  in  1853.  American 
grape  training  is,  therefore,  a  very  recent  develop- 
ment, and  we  are  only  now 
outgrowing  the  influence 
of  the  practices  early  im- 
ported from  Europe.  The 
first  decided  epoch  in  the 
evolution  of  our  grape 
training  was  the  appear- 
ance of  Fuller's  "Grape 
Culturist,"  in  1864;  for 
while  the  system  which  he 
depicted,  and  which  yet 

Often   bears   his   name,   was       254.     The  first  American 


F. 


but     a      modification      of   Pictures  of 


Pranine 


European     methods,     and 

had  been  outlined  by  earlier  American  writers,  it 

was  at  that  time  placed  clearly  and  cogently  before 

*Persons  who  are  interested  in  the  historical  development  of  American 
grape-growing,  may  consult  the  author's  "Sketch  of  the  Evolution  of  our 
Native  Fruits." 


LT>r>.     The  first  American  pictures  of  grape  pruning  and  training.     180G. 


EVOLUTION    OF    GRAPE    TRAINING  393 

the  public,  and  became  an  accepted  practice.  The 
fundamental  principles  of  pruning  are  alike  for 
both  European  and  American  grapes,  but  the  de- 
tails of  pruning  and  training  must  be  greatly 
modified  for  different  species.  We  must  under- 
stand at  the  outset  that  American  species  of 
grapes  demand  an  American  system  of  treatment. 

The  earliest  American  pictures  of  grape  training 
of  which  I  know  are  those  in  S.  W.  Johnson's 
"Rural  Economy,"  published  at  New  Brunswick, 
New  Jersey,  in  1806.  These  pictures  are  here  re- 
produced full  size  (Figs.  254,  255) .  The  successive 
figures  illustrate  the  events  in  the  pruning.  Fig.  1 
shows  the  growth  of  the  first  year  and  Fig.  2  the 
first  pruning.  Fig.  3,  the  second  year's  growth, 
is  pruned  to  the  condition  shown  in  Fig.  4.  Fig.  6 
shows  the  training,  the  bearing  canes  being  sup- 
ported on  the  main  stake  and  the  growing  or  re- 
newal canes  on  intermediate  stakes.  Figs.  7—12 
show  the  system  of  renewal.  To  one  familiar 
with  grape  training,  these  various  pictures  sug- 
gest European  patterns. 

John  Adlum,  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  first  person  to  systemati- 
cally undertake  the  cultivation  and  amelioration 
of  the  native  grapes.  His  method  of  training,  as 
described  in  1823,  is  as  follows:  One  shoot  is 
allowed  to  grow  the  first  year,  and  this  is  cut 
back  to  two  buds  the  first  fall.  The  second  year 
two  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow,  and  they  are  tied 


394  AMERICAN     GRAPE    TRAINING 

to  "two  stakes  fixed  down  to  the  side  of  each 
plant,  about  five  or  six  feet  high  ; "  in  the  fall 
each  cane  is  cut  back  to  three  or  four  buds.  In 
the  third  spring,  these  two  short  canes  are  spread 
apart  "so  as  to  make  an  angle  of  about  forty -five 
degrees  with  the  stem,"  and  are  tied  to  stakes  ; 


256.     Dufour's  trellis  training.     182G. 

this  season  about  two  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow 
from  each  branch,  making  four  in  all,  and  in  the 
fall  the  outside  ones  are  cut  back  to  three  or  four 
buds,  and  the  inner  ones  to  two.  These  outside 
shoots  are  to  bear  the  fruit  the  fourth  year,  and 
the  inside  ones  give  rise  to  renewal  canes.  These 
two  outer  canes  or  branches  are  secured  to  two 
stakes  set  about  sixteen  inches  jipon  either  side 
of  the  vine,  and  the  shoots  are  tied  up  to  the 
stake  as  they  grow.  The  renewal  shoots  from 
the  inside  stubs  are  tied  to  a  third  stake  set  near 


EARLY    TYPES     OF     TRAINING 


395 


the  root  of  the  vine.  The  outside  branches  are  to 
be  cut  away  entirely  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year. 
This  is  an  ingenious  renewal  post  system,  and  it 
is  easy  to  see  how  the  Horizontal  Arm  and  High 
Renewal  systems  may  have  sprung  from  it. 


Dufour's  sketch  of  training  on  mulberry  trees,  suggested 
by  European  practice.     1826. 

The  next  important  account  appears  to  be  that 
of  John  James  Dufour,  who  wrote  the  "American 
Vine -Dresser's  Guide"  in  1826.  Dufour  published 
the  second  pictures  of  grape- train  ing,  two  of  which 
are  here  reproduced  (Figs.  256,  257).  A  part  of 
Dufour's  sketch  will  interest  us: 


396  AMERICAN    GEAPE    TRAINING 

"  Now  for  bowers  and  espaliers  or  hedgerows :  Any  way 
a  vine  is  trained  on  the  lattice  work  as  to  furnish  regularly 
the  wall  for  an  espalier,  and  top  of  a  bower,  answers  the 
purpose.  But  as  the  sap  of  plants,  and  of  grape  vines  par- 
ticularly, always  tends  to  run  upwards,  it  will  happen  that 
a  vine  which  is  to  give  branches  at  different  heights,  the 
uppermost  of  all  will  shoot  overgrown  branches  of  the 
lowest  part,  which  will  be  always  weak;  therefore,  if  a 
high  wall  or  a  large  bower  in  a  garden  is  to  be  covered  with 
an  espalier  of  vines,  the  wall  or  bower  must  be  divided  in 
sections,  that  one  vine  may  furnish  wood  enough  to  fill  one 
story  in  that  section;  say  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  long, 
according  to  the  force  of  the  ground.  The  height  of  one 
story  being  about  three  feet;  a  wall  of  eighteen  feet  high 
and  fifty  feet  long  would  offer  two  sections,  and  five 
stories,  also  it  would  require  ten  vines  to  furnish  it;  one 
per  story  in  each  section;  then  five  vines,  or  as  many  as 
there  are  stories  must  be  planted  before  each  section,  not 
close  to  the  wall  or  bower,  but  four  or  five  feet  from  it ;  and 
when  the  vines  are  strong  enough  to  be  laid  as  directed  for 
vines  planted  by  mulberry  trees,  they  are  to  be  laid  down 
in  the  same  way,  nine  or  twelve  inches  deep,  and  raised 
against  the  wall  or  bower,  and  pruned  to  three  eyes :  Vines 
planted  immediately  where  they  are  to  grow  would  perhaps 
do  as  well;  but  I  have  done  myself  and  seen  it  done  the 
other  way.  It  is  supposed  that  a  vine  which  is  to  nourish 
more  branches  and  more  fruit  than  one  in  a  vineyard,  will 
be  stronger  if  it  runs  some  space  into  the  ground,  it  will 
surely  shoot  more  roots  from  the  stock;  but  I  think  any 
plant  will  get  roots  in  proportion  to  the  branches  it  has  to 
nourish :  also,  I  do  not  think  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  plant  them  first  at  a  distance  from  a  wall  or  a  bower, 
but  it  is  surely  better  to  do  it  against  a  tree,  on  account  of 
the  roots  of  the  tree,  which  keeps  the  ground  very  dry 
within  their  reach ;  it  is  best,  however,  to  do  it  always 
when  it  can  be  done  most  conveniently.  After  the  vines 


DUFOUR'S   TRAINING  397 

have  acquired  the  proper  strength,  they  are  to  be  trained 
along  the  laths,  so  that  one  vine  should  furnish  one  story 
only,  or  that  all  its  branches  should  shoot  on  a  horizontal 
line,  and  nowhere  else.  (See  Fig.  256.)  The  vine  in  the 
left  edge  of  the  section  being  brought  up  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  perpendicular  to  the  lowest  lath,  there  it  must  be 
bent  square  to  the  right,  and  tied  to  the  lath  as  far  as  the 
other  edge  of  the  section.  If  that  do  not  give  too  great 
a  load  to  the  vine,  every  foot  along  the  lath,  a  bud  must  be 
left  to  grow,  and  the  vine  is  full  loaded  with  twelve  or 
fifteen  growing  buds,  so  that  a  lath  twenty-five  feet  long 
will  require  two  or  three  years  to  fill  it,  without  overloading 
the  plant.  The  next  vine  being  brought  up  perpendicular, 
three  feet  higher  to  the  second  lath,  and  there  bent  and 
tied  along  the  lath  about  as  the  first  one ;  there  may  be 
also  twelve  or  fifteen  buds  to  grow,  one  being  left  at  each 
foot;  all  the  buds  in  that  part  of  the  vines  which  are  per- 
pendicular, must  be  rubbed  off  except  one  or  two  just  under 
the  elbow  where  the  lath  in  that  section  has  to  be  filled  up 
with  a  next  year's  shoot,  when  the  vine  of  one  story  has 
reached  the  boundary  of  the  section,  there  it  must  be 
stopped.  The  next  vine,  or  the  third,  must  go  up  first  to 
the  third  lath,  and  so  on  until  the  middle  of  the  section, 
where,  after  having  brought  the  vine  up  to  its  lath,  it  must 
be  then  bent  to  the  left,  having  there  more  room.  To  have 
a  perfect  espalier  or  bower,  it  requires  much  nursing  until 
the  wall  or  bower  is  completely  filled,  then  you  will  have  a 
horn  every  foot  along  each  lath  except  the  top  one,  which 
must  be  left  naked,  that  you  may  tie  to  it  the  sprouts  of 
the  story  under  it.  This  horn  must  be  made  anew  every 
year,  by  the  pruning,  as  directed  for  the  festoons  between 
the  mulberry  trees,  and  what  grows  from  them  must  be 
suckered  and  tied  to  the  lath  above,  and  may  be  pinched  a 
couple  of  feet  higher  up.  What  grows  on  the  top  or  roof 
of  a  bower,  may  be  left  to  grow  at  liberty  after  it  has  been 
pruned.  An  espalier  of  vines  thus  trained  cover  a  wall  or  a 


398  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

bower  most  beautifully,  and  bears  abundance  of  grapes, 
which,  come  to  fine  perfection  and  make  a  noble  appearance ; 
every  exposure  I  expect  would  answer  in  this  country;  the 
southwest  is  the  exposure  that  I  saw  grapes  come  first  to 
maturity.  There  is  in  Swisserland  such  an  espalier  in  full 
perfection,  thirty  feet  high,  on  the  side  of  a  large  barn, 
planted  there  by  myself  thirty  five  years  since." 

The  sketch  in  Fig.  256  "  shows  a  piece  of  an  espalier  or 
hedgerow.  Letter  L  the  laths ;  b  the  horns  to  be  renewed 
yearly;  h  the  horizontal  branches.  At  the  lower  lath  as  it 
appears  immediately  after  the  training  of  it.  Along  the 
next  lath  above,  shows  the  horns  made  the  subsequent  prun- 
ings."  Fig.  257  "represents  two  mulberry  trees  and  vines 
trained  from  tree  to  tree— letter  h  the  main  horizontal 
branches — L  the  lath — m  the  trees — b  the  horns  to  be 
renewed  every  year,  and  what  will  grow  from  them  will 
often  hang  as  shown  by  the  branch  with  leaves  and 
fruit  on." 

The  great  diversity  of  opinion  which  exists 
among  the  best  grape  -  growers  concerning  the  ad- 
vantages of  different  systems  of  training  is  proof 
that  many  systems  have  merit,  and  that  no  one 
system  is  better  than  others  for  all  purposes.  The 
grower  must  recognize  the  fact  that  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  determining  the  merits  of  any 
system  of  training  is  the  habit  of  the  vine — as  its 
vigor,  rate  of  growth,  normal  size,  relative  size  and 
abundance  of  leaves,  and  season  and  character  of 
fruit.  Nearly  every  variety  differs  from  others 
in  some  particular  habit,  and  it  therefore  requires 
different  treatment  in  some  important  detail. 
Varieties  may  thrive  equally  well  upon  the  same 


NEED    OF    INSTRUCTION  399 

general  system  of  training,  but  require  minor 
modifications  ;  so  it  comes  that  no  hard  and  fast 
lines  can  be  laid  down,  either  for  any  system  or 
any  variety.  One  system  differs  from  another  in 
some  one  main  principle  or  idea,  but  the  modifi- 
cations of  all  may  meet  and  blend.  If  two  men 
practice  the  Kniffin  system,  therefore,  this  fact 
does  not  indicate  that  they  prune  and  train  their 
vines  exactly  alike.  It  is  impossible  to  formulate 
rules  for  grape  -  training ;  it  is,  therefore,  im- 
portant that  we  understand  thoroughly  the  phi- 
losophy of  pruning  and  training,  both  in  general 
and  in  the  different  systems  which  are  now  most 
popular. 

These  Chapters  (VII.  and  VIII.)  on  grape  train- 
ing are  a  revision  of  my  "American  Grape  Train- 
ing," published  by  the  Rural  Publishing  Company 
in  1893.  The  motive  of  the  book  was  thus  set 
forth  in  the  preface:  "This  little  book  has  grown 
out  of  an  attempt  to  teach  the  principles  and 
methods  of  grape  training  to  college  students.  I 
have  found  such  teaching  to  be  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult and  unsatisfactory.  It  is  impossible  to  firmly 
impress  the  lessons  by  mere  lectures.  The  student 
must  apprehend  the  principles  slowly  and  by  his 
own  effort.  He  must  have  time  to  thoroughly 
assimilate  them  before  he  attempts  to  apply  them. 
I  therefore  cast  about  for  books  which  I  could 
put  before  my  class,  but  I  at  once  found  that 
there  are  very  few  succinct  accounts  of  the  sub- 


400  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

ject  of  grape  pruning  and  training,  and  that  none 
of  our  books  portray  the  methods  which  are  most 
largely  practised  in  the  large  grape  regions  of  the 
east.  My  only  recourse,  therefore,  was  to  put  my 
own  notes  into  shape  for  print,  and  this  I  have 
now  done.  And  inasmuch  as  all  grape- growers 
are  students,  I  hope  that  the  simple  account  will 
find  a  use  beyond  the  class-room. 

"This  lack  of  adequate  accounts  of  grape  train- 
ing at  first  astonished  me,  but  is  not  strange  after 
all.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  cultivation 
of  the  native  grape  is  of  very  recent  origin. 
There  are  many  men  who  can  remember  its  begin- 
ning in  a  commercial  way.  It  seldom  occurs  to 
the  younger  generation,  which  is  familiar  with  the 
great  vineyards  in  many  states,  that  the  Concord 
is  yet  scarcely  forty  years  old,  and  that  all  grape- 
growing  in  eastern  America  is  yet  in  an  experi- 
mental stage.  Progress  has  been  so  rapid  in 
recent  years  that  the  new  methods  outstrip  the 
books.  The  old  horizontal  arm  spur  system, 
which  is  still  the  chief  method  in  the  books,  has 
evolved  itself  into  a  high  renewal  training,  which 
is  widely  used,  but  which  has  not  found  its  way 
into  the  manuals.  The  Kniffin  type  has  outgrown 
its  long  period  of  incubation,  and  is  now  taking 
an  assured  place  in  vineyard  management.  So 
two  great  types,  opposed  in  method,  are  now  con- 
tending for  supremacy,  and  they  will  probably 
form  the  basis  of  all  future  developments.  This 


THE    CONFUSED    IDEALS  401 

evolution  of  American  grape  training  is  one  of 
the  most  unique  and  signal  developments  of  our 
modern  horticulture,  and  its  very  recent  departure 
from  the  early  doubts  and  trials  is  a  fresh  illus- 
tration of  the  youth  and  virility  of  all  horticul- 
tural pursuits  in  North  America. 

"This  development  of  our  grape -training  should 
form  the  subject  of  a  historical  inquiry.  I  have 
not  attempted  such  in  this  little  hand-book.  I 
have  omitted  all  reference  to  the  many  early 
methods,  which  were  in  most  cases  transportations 
or  modifications  of  European  practices,  for  their 
value  is  now  chiefly  historical,  and  their  insertion 
here  would  only  confuse  the  reader.  I  have  at- 
tempted nothing  more  than  a  plain  account  of 
the  methods  now  in  use  ;  in  fact,  I  am  aware  that 
I  have  not  accomplished  even  this  much,  for  there 
are  various  methods  which  I  have  not  mentioned. 
But  these  omitted  forms  are  mostly  of  local  use 
or  adaptation,  arid  they  are  usually  only  modifi- 
cations of  the  main  types  here  explained.  It  is 
impossible  to  describe  all  the  variations  in  grape 
training  in  a  book  of  pocket  size ;  neither  is  it 
necessary.  Nearly  every  grower  who  has  given 
grape  raising  careful  attention  has  introduced  into 
his  own  vineyard  some  modifications  which  he 
thinks  are  of  special  value  to  him.  There  are 
various  curious  and  instructive  old  books  to  which 
the  reader  can  go  if  he  desires  to  know  the  history 
and  evolution  of  grape  training  in  America,  He 


402  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

will  find  that  we  have  now  passed  through  the 
long  and  costly  experiment  with  European  sys- 
tems ;  and  we  have  also  outgrown  the  gross  or 
long -wood  styles,  and  now  prune  close,  with  the 
expectation  of  obtaining  superior  and  definite  re- 
sults."* 

PRUNING  THE   GRAPE 

Pruning  and  training  are  terms  which  are 
often  confounded  when  speaking  of  the  grape, 
but  they  represent  distinct  operations.  Pruning 
refers  to  such  removal  of  branches  as  shall  in- 
sure better  and  larger  fruit  on  the  remaining 
portions.  Training  refers  to  the  disposition  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  vine.  It  is  true  that 
different  methods  of  training  demand  different 
styles  of  pruning,  but  the  modification  in  prun- 
ing is  only  such  as  shall  adapt  it  to  the  external 

*In  the  original  edition,  all  the  manuscript  was  read  by  three  persons 
—by  George  C.  Snow,  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y. ;  William  D.  Barns,  Middle  Hope, 
N.  YM  and  L.  C.  Corbett,  my  assistant  in  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station 
at  that  time,  but  now  professor  of  horticulture  in  West  Virginia.  Mr. 
Snow  is  a  grower  in  the  lake  region  of  Western  New  York,  and  employs 
the  High  Renewal  system;  Mr.  Barns  is  a  grower  in  the  Hudson  River 
Valley,  and  practices  the  Kniffin  system;  while  Mr.  Corbett  has  been  a 
student  of  all  the  systems,  and  has  practiced  two  or  three  of  them  in 
commercial  plantations.  In  this  revision,  I  have  been  greatly  aided  by 
John  W.  Spencer,  Westfield,  N.  Y.,  one  of  the  representative  grape- 
growers  of  the  famous  Chautauqua  district.  To  these  persons  is  to  be 
attributed  very  much  of  any  value  which  the  book  may  possess. 

The  reader  will  find  a  good  account  of  grape  training  by  the  late 
E.  G.  Lodeman,  in  Year-Book  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1896. 
For  southern  conditions  he  should  consult  Starnes'  "Grape  Culture," 
Bull.  28,  Ga.  Exp.  Sta. 


HOW    THE    FRUIT    IS    BORNE 


403 


shape  and  size  of  the  vine,  and  does  not  in  any 
way  affect  the  principle  upon  which  it  rests. 
Pruning  is  a  necessity,  and,  in  essence,  there  is 
but  one  method ;  training  is  largely  a  conven- 


258.     Grape  shoot. 

ieuce,    and    there    are    as   many    modes  as    there 
are  fancies  among  grape -growers. 

All  intelligent  pruning  of  the  grape  rests  upon 
the  fact  that  the  fruit  is  borne  in  a  few  clusters 
near  the  base  of  the  growing  shoots  of  the  season, 

and  which  spring  from  wood  of  last 

"•^veR'AfTy8 

"*    OF  YHK 

TJNIVKRSIT 

' 


404  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

It  should  be  said  here  that  a  growing,  leafy 
branch  of  the  grape  vine  is  called  a  shoot;  a 
ripened  shoot  is  called  a  cane  ;  a  branch  or  trunk 
two  or  more  years  old  is  called  an  arm. 

A  shoot,  as  it  appears  in  the  northern  states  in 
June,  is  shown  in  Fig.  258.  The  whole  shoot 
has  grown  within  a  month,  from  a  bud.  As  it 
grew,  flower  clusters  appeared,  and  these  are  to 
bear  the  grapes.  Flowering  is  now  past,  but  the 
shoot  will  continue  to  grow,  perhaps,  to  the 
length  of  ten  or  twenty  feet.  At  picking  time, 
therefore,  the  grapes  all  hang  near  the  lower  end 
or  base  of  the  shoots  or  new  canes,  as  in  Fig. 
259  and  Fig.  52,  page  65.  In  Fig.  259,  the  old 
cane  was  cut  at  A.  Then  a  shoot  started  from  a 
bud  at  B  and  grew  beyond  BB,  and  another 
shoot  sprung  from  the  uppermost  bud. 

Each  bud  on  the  old  cane,  therefore,  produces 
a  new  [cane  which  may  bear  fruit  as  well  as 
leaves.  At  the  close  of  the  season,  this  long  ri- 
pened shoot  or  cane  has  produced  a  bud  every 
foot  or  less,  from  which  new  fruit -bearing  shoots 
are  to  spring  next  year.  But  if  all  these  buds 
were  allowed  to  remain,  the  vine  would  be  over- 
taxed with  fruit  the  coming  year,  and  the  crop 
would  be  a  failure.  The  cane  is,  therefore,  cut 
off  until  it  bears  only  as  many  buds  as  experi- 
ence has  taught  us  the  vine  should  carry.  The 
cane  may  be  cut  back  to  five  or  ten  buds,  and 
perhaps  some  of  these  buds  will  be  removed,  or 


HOW    THE    FRUIT    IS    BORNE 


405 


"rubbed  off/'  next  spring  if  the  young  growth 
seems  to  be  too  thick,  or  if  the  plant  is  weak. 
Each  shoot  will  bear,  on  an  average,  two  or 
three  clusters.  Some  shoots  will  bear  no  clus- 


259.    The  bearing  wood. 

ters.  From  one  to  six  of  the  old  canes,  each 
bearing  from  five  to  ten  buds,  are  left  each 
spring.  The  number  of  clusters  which  a  vine 
can  carry  well  depends  upon  the  variety,  the  age 
and  size  of  the  vine,  the  style  of  the  training, 
and  the  soil  and  cultivation.  Experience  is  the 


406  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

only  guide.  A  strong  vine  of  Concord,  which  is 
a  prolific  variety,  trained  in  any  of  the  ordinary 
systems  and  set  nine  or  ten  feet  apart  each  way, 
will  usually  carry  from  thirty  to  sixty  clusters. 
The  clusters  will  weigh  from  a  fourth  to  a  half 
pound  each.  Twelve  or  fifteen  pounds  of  mar- 
ketable grapes  is  a  fair  or  average  crop  for  such 
a  Concord  vine,  and  twenty -five  pounds  is  a  very 
heavy  crop. 

The  pruning  of  the  grape  vine,  therefore,  is 
essentially  a  thinning  process*.  In  the  winter 
pruning  all  the  canes  of  the  last  season's  growth 
are  cut  away  except  two  to  six,  which  are  left 
to  make  the  fruit  and  wood  of  the  next  year  ; 
and  each  of  these  remaining  canes  is  headed - 
back  to  three  to  ten  buds.  The  number  and 
length  of  the  canes  which  are  left  after  the  prun- 
ing depend  upon  the  style  of  training  which  is 
practiced.  A  vine  which  may  completely  cover  a 
trellis  in  the  fall  will  be  cut  back  so  severely  that 
a  novice  will  fear  that  the  plant  is  ruined.  But 
the  operator  bears  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  grape, 
unlike  the  apple,  pear  and  peach,  does  not  bear 
distinct  fruit -buds  in  the  fall,  but  buds  which 
produce  both  fruit  and  wood  the  following  season. 

Let  us  now  suppose,  therefore,  that  we  have 
pruned  our  vine  in  the  fall  of  1891  to  two  canes, 
each  bearing  ten  buds  (Fig.  260).  We  will  call 
these  canes  A  and  B  respectively.  In  1892,  there- 
fore, twenty  shoots  grew  from  them,  and  each  of 


HOW    MANY    BUDS    TO    LEAVE 


407 


these  shoots  or  new  canes  branches,  or  produces 
laterals.  We  will  call  these  new  canes  of  1892 
Al,  A2,  A3,  Bl,  B2,  and  so  on.  Each  of  the  new 
canes  bears  at  the  base  about  two  clusters  of 
grapes,  giving  a  total  yield  of  about  forty  clus- 
ters. These  clusters  stand  opposite  the  leaves,  as 


BlO     B9  B8  B7  B6       B5    B4       B3  B2  Bl  C 

/  ,       I       J  \       I 


D  Al  A2  A3   A4    A5     A6    A?    A8  A9  AlO 

/       / 


260.     Diagram  to  illustrate  pruning. 

seen  in  Fig.  258.  In  the  axil  of  each  leaf  a  bud 
is  formed  which  will  produce  a  cane,  and  perhaps 
fruit,  in  1893.  If  each  of  these  new  canes,  Al, 
A2,  etc.,  produces  ten  buds — which  is  a  moderate 
number — the  vine  would  go  into  the  winter  of 
1892-3  with  two  hundred  buds  for  the  next  year's 
growth  and  crop  ;  but  these  buds  should  be  re- 
duced to  about  twenty,  as  they  were  in  the  fall  of 
1891.  That  is,  every  year  we  go  back  again  to 
the  same  number  of  buds,  and  the  top  of  the  vine 


408  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

gets  no  larger  from  year  to  year.  We  must, 
therefore,  cut  back  again  to  two  canes.  We  cut 
back  each  of  these  original  canes,  A  and  B,  to 
one  new  cane.  That  is,  we  leave  only  Al  and 
Bl,  cutting  off  A2,  A3,  etc.,  and  B2,  B3,  etc. 
This  brings  the  vine  back  to  very  nearly  its  con- 
dition in  the  fall  of  1891 ;  but  the  new  canes,  Al 
and  Bl,  which  are  now  to  become  the  main  canes 
by  being  bent  down  horizontally,  were  borne  at 
some  distance — say  three  or  four  inches — from  the 
base  of  the  original  canes,  A  and  B,  so  that  the 
permanent  part  of  the  vine  is  constantly  lengthen- 
ing itself.  This  annually  lengthening  portion  is 
called  a  spur.  Spurs  are  rarely  or  never  made  in 
this  exact  position,  however,  although  this  dia- 
grammatic sketch  illustrates  clearly  the  method 
of  their  formation.  The  common  method  of  spur- 
ring is  that  connected  with  the  horizontal  arm 
system  of  training,  in  which  the  arms  A  and  B 
are  allowed  to  become  permanent,  and  the  up- 
right canes,  Al,  A2,  Bl,  B2,  B3,  etc.,  are  cut  back 
to  within  two  or  three  buds  of  these  arms  each 
year.  The  cane  Al,  for  instance,  is  cut  back  in 
the  fall  of  1892  to  two  or  three  buds,  and  in  1893 
two  or  three  canes  will  grow  from  this  stub.  In 
the  fall  of  1893  only  one  cane  is  left  after  the 
pruning,  and  this  one  is  cut  back  to  two  or  three 
buds;  and  so  on. 

Thus  the  spur  grows  higher  every  year,  although 
every  effort  is  made  to  keep  it  short,  both  by  re- 


THE    SPUR  409 

ducing  the  number  of  buds  to  one  or  two  and  by 
endeavoring  to  bring  out  a  cane  lower  down  on 
the  spur  every  few  years.  Fig.  261  shows  a  short 
spur  of  two  years'  standing.  The  horizontal  por- 
tion shows  the  permanent  arm.  The  first  upright 
part  is  the  remains  of  the  first -year  cane,  and 
the  upper  part  is  the  second -year  cane  after  it 
is  cut  back  in  the  fall.  In  this 
instance,  the  cane  is  cut  back  to 
one  fruiting -bud,  6,  the  small 
buds,  a  a,  being  rubbed  out. 
There  are  serious  objections  to 
spurs  in  any  position.  They  be- 
come hard  and  comparatively  life- 
less after  a  time  ;  it  is  often  diffi- 
cult to  replace  them  by 
healthy,  fresh  wood;  and 
the  bearing  portion  of  the 
vine  is  constantly  reced- """"  "~  26i.  Spur, 
ing  from  the  main  trunk. 

The  bearing  wood  should  spring  from  near  the 
central  parts  of  the  vine,  or  be  kept  "near  the 
head,"  as  the  grape  -  growers  say.  In  order  to 
do  this,  it  is  customary  to  allow  two  canes  to 
grow  out  each  year  back  of  the  canes  Al  and  Bl 
(Fig.  260),  or  from  the  head  of  the  vine;  these 
canes  may  be  designated  C  and  D. 

These  canes,  C  and  D,  are  grown  during  1892 — 
when  they  may  bear  fruit  like  other  canes — for 
the  sole  purpose  of  forming  the  basis  of  the  bear- 


410  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

ing  top  in  1893,  while  all  the  old  top,  A  and  B, 
with  the  secondary  canes,  Al,  A2,  Bl,  B2,  B3, 
etc.,  is  cut  entirely  away. 

Here,  then,  are  two  distinct  methods  of  forming 
the  bearing  top  for  the  succeeding  year:  either 
from  spurs,  which  are  the  remains  of  the  previous 
top  ;  or  from  renewals,  which  are  taken  each  year 


262.     Renewal  pruning. 


from  the  old  wood  near  the  head  of  the  vine,  or 
even  from  the  ground.  Renewals  from  the  ground 
are  now  little  used,  however,  for  the}-  seldom  give 
a  sufficient  crop  unless  they  are  headed -in  the  first 
fall  and  are  allowed  to  bear  the  second  year.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  spur  and  renewal 
methods  refer  entirely  to  pruning,  not  to  training, 
for  either  one  can  be  used  in  any  system  of  train- 
ing. Spur  pruning,  however,  is  growing  in  dis- 
favor among  commercial  grape -growers,  and 
renewal  is  more  or  less  used  in  all  systems  of 
training. 


RENEWAL  411 

Renewal  pruning  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  262. 
This  engraving  shows  the  head  of  a  vine  seven 
years  old,  and  on  which  two  canes  are  allowed 
to  remain  after  each  annual  pruning.  The  part 
extending  from  &  to  /  and  d  is  the  base  of  the 
bearing  cane  of  1892.  In  the  winter  of  1892-3, 
this  cane  is  cut  off  at  d,  and  the  new  cane,  e,  is 
left  to  make  the  bearing  wood  of  1893.  Another 
cane  sprung  from  /,  but  it  was  too  weak  to  leave 
for  fruiting.  It  was,  therefore,  cut  away.  The 
old  stub,  5,  /,  d,  will  be  cut  away  a  year  hence,  in 
the  winter  of  1893-4.  In  the  meantime,  a  re- 
newal cane  will  have  grown  from  the  stub  c,  which 
is  left  for  that  purpose,  and  the  old  cane,  &  d,  will 
be  cut  off  just  beyond  it,  between  c  and  /.  In 
this  way,  the  bearing  wood  is  kept  close  to  the 
head  of  the  vine.  The  wound  a  shows  where  an 
old  stub  was  cut  away  this  winter,  1892-3,  while  & 
shows  where  one  was  cut  off  the  previous  winter. 
A  scar  upon  the  back  of  the  head,  which  does  not 
show  in  the  illustration,  marks  the  spot  where  a 
stub  was  cut  away  two  years  ago,  in  the  winter 
of  1890-1.  This  method  of  pruning  can  be  kept 
up  almost  indefinitely,  and  if  care  is  exercised  in 
keeping  the  stubs  short,  the  head  will  not  enlarge 
out  of  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  stock  or 
trunk. 

PRUNING  YOUNG  VINES.— The  time  required 
after  planting  to  get  the  vine  onto  the  wires  or 
trellis  varies  with  the  strength  of  the  vine  when 


412  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

set,  the  variety,  the  soil  and  cultivation,  and  the 
system  of  training ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  training 
begins  the  second  or  third  year,  previous  to  which 
time  the  vine  is  pruned,  not  trained.  Two -year- 
old  vines  are  most  popular  for  planting,  although 
in  the  strong  varieties,  as  Concord  and  Niagara, 
well -grown  yearling  vines  are  probably  as  good, 
if  not  better.  The  strong -growing  kinds  are 
commonly  set  from  eight  to  ten  feet  apart  in  the 
row,  and  the  rows  eight  or  nine  feet  apart.  Dela- 
wares  and  other  small  vines  may  be  set  closer, 
although  eight  feet  is  preferable.  When  set,  the 
vine  is  cut  back  to  two  or  three  buds.  During 
the  first  year,  the  young  canes  are  usually  allowed 
to  lie  upon  the  ground  at  will,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
263.  In  the  fall  or  winter,  all  the  canes  but  one 
are  cut  off,  and  this  one  is  cut  back  to  two  or 
three  buds.  The  vine  is,  therefore,  no  larger  at 
the  expiration  of  a  year's  growth  than  it  was 
when  planted ;  but  in  the  meantime  the  plant  has 
become  thoroughly  established  in  the  soil,  and  the 
second  year's  growth  should  be  strong  enough  to 
form  the  basis  for  the  permanent  trunk  or  arm. 
If,  however,  the  second  year's  growth  is  weak,  it 
may  be  cut  back  as  before,  and  the  third  season's 
growth  used  for  the  trunk.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  growth  of  the  first  year  is  sometimes  carried 
onto  the  wires  to  form  the  permanent  trunk  and 
arms,  but  it  is  only  with  extra  strong  vines  in 
good  soil  that  this  practice  is  admissible.  From 


WHEN    TO     PRUNE     GRAPES 


413 


this  point,  the  treatment  of  the  vine  is  discussed 
under  Training  (Chapter  VIII.). 

WHEN  TO  PRUNE. — Grape  vines  may  be  pruned 
at  any  time  during  the  winter.     It  is  the  practice 


263.    A  newly-planted  vineyard, 

among  most  grape -growers  in  the  North  to  prune 
as  time  permits  from  November  to  late  in  Feb- 
ruary, or  even  early  in  March.  The  sap  flows 
very  freely  from  cuts  made  in  spring  and  early 
summer,  causing  the  phenomenon  known  as 
"bleeding,"  or  in  Europe  as  "weeping,"  and  in 
order  to  prevent  this  loss,  pruning  is  stopped  six 


414  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

weeks  or  more  before  the  time  at  which  the  buds 
usually  swell.  It  is  yet  a  moot  point  if  this 
bleeding  injures  the  vine,  but  it  is  a  safe  practice 
to  prune  early.  The  vine  is  cut  off  an  inch  or 
two  beyond  the  last  bud  which  it  is  desired  to 
leave,  in  order  to^avoid  injury  to  the  bud  from 
the  drying-out  of  the  end  of  the  cane. 

The  pruning  is  done  with  small  hand  pruning- 
shears.  The  canes  are  often  allowed  to  remain 
tied  to  the  wires  until  the  pruning  is  accom- 
plished, although  it  is  the  practice  with  most 
growers  who  use  the  Kniffin  system  to  cut  the 
strings  before  pruning.  The  removal  of  the 
severed  canes  is  known  as  "stripping."  In  large 
vineyards,  the  pruner  sometimes  leaves  the  strip- 
ping to  boys  or  other  cheap  labor.  The  stripping 
may  be  done  at  any  time  after  the  pruning  is  per- 
formed, until  spring.  It  must  be  done  before  the 
growth  starts  on  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
vine,  however,  to  avoid  injury  to  the  young  buds 
when  tearing  the  vines  off  the  trellis. 

SUMMER  PRUNING. — There  is  much  discussion 
as  to  the  advisability  of  summer  pruning.  It  is 
essential  to  the  understanding  of  the  question  that 
the  grower  bear  in  mind  that  this  summer  prun- 
ing is  of  two  kinds — the  removal  or  "breaking- 
out"  of  the  superfluous  shoots,  and  heading -in 
or  "stopping"  the  main  canes  to  keep  them  within 
limits.  The  superfluous  shoots  are  such  as  spring 
from  small,  weak  buds,  or  those  which  break  from 


SUMMER    PRUNING  415 

the  old  arms  or  trunk  of  the  vine.  Shoots  which 
start  from  the  very  base  of  the  old  cane  are  usu- 
ally weak,  and  should  be  removed.  Buds  in  this 
position  are  shown  at  a  a,  in  Fig.  261.  The  sec- 
ondary or  axillary  branches,  which  often  start 
from  the  base  of  the  season's  shoots,  should  be 
removed  or  broken  out.  These  superfluous  shoots 
are  pulled  off  from  time  to  time  as  they  appear, 
or  the  buds  may  be  rubbed  off  before  the  shoots 
begin  to  grow. 

The  heading -in  of  the  main  canes,  while  desir- 
able for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  vine  within 
bounds,  is  apt  to  cause  a  growth  of  laterals  which 
choke  up  the  vine,  and  which  do  not  mature,  and 
in  those  styles  of  training  in  which  very  little 
wood  is  allowed  to  grow,  the  practice  may  pre- 
vent the  development  of  a  sufficient  amount  of 
leaf  surface  to  properly  sustain  the  vine.  Vines 
are  often  weakened  by  summer  pruning.  These 
dangers  can  be  overcome  by  careful  attention, 
however,  especially  by  heading-in  very  lightly,  and 
by  doing  it  as  late  in  the  season  as  possible,  when 
new  lateral  growth  does  not  start  readily.  The 
necessity  of  much  heading-in  has  been  largely 
obviated  in  late  years  by  the  adoption  of  high  and 
drooping  systems  of  training,  and  by  setting  the 
vines  far  apart.  The  strong  varieties,  like  Con- 
cord, Brighton  and  Niagara,  should  be  set  ten 
feet  apart  in  the  row,  especially  if  grown  upon 
the  Kniffin  system.  Catawba,  being  a  very  up- 


416  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

right  grower,  and  especially  well  adapted  to 
upright  training,  may  be  set  eight  feet  apart,  and 
Delaw^res  are  often  set  as  close  as  six  or  eight 
feet.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  any  variety 
should  be  set  less  than  eight  feet  apart  for  trellis 
culture.  In  Virginia  and  southward,  where  the 
growth  is  large  because  of  the  long  seasons,  vines 
are  often  set  more  than  ten  feet  apart.  In  the 
South,  the  rows  should  run  north  and  south,  that 
the  fruit  may  be  shaded  from  midday  sun.  The 
only  summer  heading -in  now  generally  recom- 
mended is  the  clipping  of  the  tips  when  they  fall 
over  and  begin  to  touch  the  ground.  This  clip- 
ping is  often  done  with  a  sickle  or  sharp  corn- 
cutter. 

MAKING     THE     TRELLIS 

The  fall  or  winter  following  the  planting  of  the 
vineyard,  the  trellis  is  begun  if  the  upright  sys- 
tems are  used  (see  Chapter  VIII.) ;  but  this  opera- 
tion is  usually  delayed  a  year  longer  in  the  Kniffin 
systems,  and  stakes  are  commonly  used,  or  at 
least  recommended,  during  the  second  season.  In 
the  South  the  trellis  is  made  the  first  year.  The 
style  of  trellis  will  depend  upon  the  style  of  train- 
ing, but  the  main  features  are  the  same  for  all. 

Strong  posts  of  some  durable  timber,  as  cedar, 
locust  or  oak,  are  placed  at  such  distance  apart 
that  two  vines  can  be  set  between  each  two.  If 
the  vines  are  set  nine  feet  apart,  the  posts  may  be 


VINEYARD    POSTS 


417 


eighteen  or  twenty  feet  apart,  and  a  vine  will  then 
stand  four  or  five  feet  from  each  post.  If  the 
posts  in  the  row  are  eighteen  feet  apart  and  the 
rows  eight  feet  apart,  about  three  hundred  and 
thirty  posts  will  be  required  to  the  acre.  Except 
in  very  hard  and  stony  lands,  the  posts  are  driven 


264.     A  poor  way  of  bracing  the  post. 

with  a  heavy  maul,  although  many  people  prefer 
to  set  the  end  posts  in  holes,  thinking  that  they 
endure  the  strain  better.  In  all  loose  soils,  how- 
ever, posts  can  be  made  as  firm  by  driving  as  by 
setting  with  a  spade.  All  posts  should  be  as  firm 
as  possible,  in  order  to  hold  up  the  heavy  loads  of 
vines  and  fruit.  In  setting  posts  on  hillsides,  it 
is  a  common  practice  to  lean  them  slightly  uphill, 
for  there  is  always  a  tendency  for  the  posts  to  tilt 
down  the  slope.  For  the  Kniffin  systems,  es- 
pecially for  the  strong -growing  grapes,  the  posts 
must  stand  six  or  six  and  one -half  feet  high  when 


418 


AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 


set,  but  a  foot  less  will  usually  be  sufficient  for 
the  upright  and  horizontal  systems.  The  posts 
should  stand  higher  at  first  than  is  necessary  for 
the  support  of  the  wires,  for  they  will  need  to  be 
driven  down  occasionally  as  they  become  loose. 
The  end  posts  of  each  row  should  be  well  braced, 


bfe 


265.    Bracing  the  end  post. 

as  shown  in  Figs.  289,  290.  A  style  of  brace 
which  is  sometimes  recommended,  is  to  anchor  the 
post  to  a  stone,  as  in  Fig.  264,  but  this  is  imprac- 
ticable. Fig.  265  illustrates  the  bracing  of  fence 
posts,  of  which  the  Prairie  Farmer  says:  "The 
usual  way  of  bracing,  shown  in  the  upper  figure, 
is  faulty,  the  brace  being  too  high  up  on  the  post 
and  standing  too  vertical.  It  should  rest  nearly 
against  the  center  of  strain  on  the  post  and  more 
nearly  in  a  horizontal  position,  as  shown  in  the 
lower  figure.  A  wire  connecting  the  top  of  the 


WIRE    FOR    THE    TRELLIS  419 

second  post  with  the  bottom  of  the  end  post  pre- 
vents the  brace  from  pushing  it  over." 

It  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  iron  posts 
will  come  into  general  use.  Second-hand  steam- 
pipe  could  no  doubt  be  used.  Iron  posts  are  not 
only  more  durable,  but  they  do  not  harbor  insects 
and  fungi. 

The  wire  ordinarily  used  is  No.  12,  except  for 
the  top  wire  in  the  Kniffin  training,  which  is  usu- 
ally No.  10,  as  the  greater  part  of  the  weight  is 
then  upon  the  top  wire.  No.  9  is  sometimes  used, 
but  it  is  often  heavier  than  necessary.  No.  14  is 
occasionally  used  for  the  middle  and  upper  rows  in 
the  upright  systems,  but  it  is  not  strong  enough. 
The  following  figures  show  the  sizes  and  weights 
of  these  and  similar  iron  and  steel  wires: 


No.        Diameter  in  inches.      Weight  of  100  feet.      Feet  in  2,000  pounds. 
9  .148  5.80  pounds.  34  483 


10  .135  4.83 

11  .120  3.82 

12  .105  2.92 

13  .092  2.24 

14  .080  1.69 

15  .072  1.37 

16  .063  1.05 


41408 


118  343 
145  985 
190  476 


The  plain  annealed  iron  wire  costs  about  three 
cents  per  pound,  and  the  galvanized — which  is 
less  used  for  vineyards — three  and  one -half  cents. 
Of  No.  12  wire,  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
pounds  is  required  per  acre  for  a  single  run  on 
rows  eight  feet  apart,  and  about  five  hundred 


420  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

pounds  for  three  runs.  The  cost  of  No.  12  wire 
per  acre,  for  three  runs,  therefore,  is  about  fifteen 
dollars. 

The  wire  is  secured  to  the  intermediate  posts  by 
staples  driven  in  firmly,  so  that  the  wire  will  not 
pull  through  readily  of  its  own  weight,  but  still 
loosely  enough  to  allow  of  the  tightening  of  the 
wires.  In  other  words,  the  head  of  the  staple 
should  not  quite  touch  the  wire.  Grape  staples 
are  of  three  lengths,  about  an  inch,  inch  and  a- 
quarter,  and  an  inch  and  a-half  respectively.  The 
shortest  length  is  little  used.  The  medium  length 
is  used  for  hard -wood  posts  and  the  longest  for 
soft  posts,  like  chestnut  and  cedar.  These  staples 
cost  five  cents  per  pound,  usually,  and  a  pound  of 
the  medium  length  contains  from  ninety  to  one 
hundred  of  the  No.  10  wire  size.  An  acre,  for 
three  wires,  will  therefore  require,  for  this  size, 
about  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  staples.  In  windy 
regions,  the  wires  should  be  placed  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  the  posts,  and  on  hillsides  it  should 
be  on  the  up-hill  side. 

There  are  several  devices  on  the  market  for 
stretching  the  wires  on  a  trellis,  such  as  the 
"come-alongs"  used  by  linemen  and  fence  build- 
ers. The  one  commonly  used  in  the  Chautauqua 
district  of  New  York  is  shown  in  Fig.  266.  The 
hook  is  secured  to  the  post,  and  the  wire  is  held 
in  the  clamp  or  jaws  at  the  opposite  end.  The 
operator  pulls  the  rope,  and  when  the  wire  is 


266.     Wire  stretcher. 


267.     Parallel  wire  stretcher. 


W8.     Paralie!  wire  stretcher,  in  operation,  the  s,ack  being  pulM 
up  by  the  strap. 


269.    Westfield  grip. 


422  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

taut,  slips  the  rope  in  the  catch  at  a.  The  loose 
end  of  the  wire  is  then  secured  to  the  post,  and 
the  machine  is  removed.  Other  forms  of  "come- 
alongs"  are  shown  in  Figs.  267,  268,  269.* 

There  are  various  means  of  securing  the  wires 
to  the  end  posts,  but  the  commonest  method  is  to 
wind  them  about  the  post  once  and  secure  them 
with  a  staple,  or  twist  the  end  of  the  wire  back 
upon  itself,  forming  a  loop.  The  wires  should  be 
drawn  taut  to  prevent  sagging  with  the  weight  of 
fruit  and  leaves.  In  order  to  allow  for  the  con- 
traction of  the  wires  in  winter,  some  growers 
loosen  the  wires  after  harvest,  and  others  provide 
some  device  which  will  relieve  the  strain.  The 
Yeomans  patent  grape-vine  trellis  is  a  simple 
and  effective  lever -contrivance  attached  to  each 
wire,  and  which  is  operated  to  loosen  the  wires 
in  fall  and  to  tighten  them  in  spring.  The  end 
post  is  sometimes  provided  upon  the  back  with  a 
square -headed  pin  which  works  tightly  in  an  inch 
and  a -half  auger  hole,  and  about  which  the  end 
of  the  wire  is  wound.  A  square -headed  iron 
wrench  operates  the  pin,  while  the  tension  of  the 
wire  around  the  side  of  the  post  keeps  the  pin 
from  slipping.  This  device  is  not  durable,  how- 
ever. An  ingenious  man  can  easily  contrive  some 
device  for  relieving  the  tension,  if  he  should  think 
it  necessary.  As  a  matter  of  practice,  however, 

*Manufactured  by  Eureka  Tempered  Copper  Works,  North  East, 
Penna. 


CARE    OF    THE    TRELLIS 


423 


the  wires  soon  stretch  and  sag  enough  with  the 
burden  of  fruit  and  vines  to  take  up  the  winter 
contraction,  and  most  growers  do  not  release  the 
wires  in  fall.  It  will  be  found  necessary,  in  fact, 
to  tighten  the  wires  and  to  straighten  up  the  posts 
from  year  to  year,  as  they  become  loose.  It  is 
always  a  profitable 
labor  to  tamp  the 
ground  firmly  about 
all  the  posts  every 
spring.  The  wires 
should  always  be 
kept  tight  during  the 
growing  season,  to 
prevent  the  whipping 
of  the  vines  by  the 
wind.  This  is  espe- 
cially important  in 
white  grapes,  which  are  discolored  by  the  rubbing 
of  leaves  and  twigs.  Unless  the  vines  are  very 
strong,  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  up  only  one  wire 
the  first  winter. 

A  German  knack  for  taking  up  the  slack  is 
shown  in  Figs.  270  and  271.  The  device  is  made 
from  heavy  wire,  and  the  trellis  wire  is  caught 
up  and  wound  about  it,  as  seen  in  Fig.  271.  A 
notch  filed  in  either  end  of  the  device  prevents  it 
from  slipping. 

Trellises  are  often  made  of  slats,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  256,  but  these  are  always  less  durable  than 


Device  for  taking  up  the 
slack. 


424  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

the  wire  trellises  and  more  expensive  to  keep  in 
repair ;  and  in  the  older  portions  of  the  country, 
where  timber  is  dear,  they  are  also  more  expen- 
sive at  the  outset.  They  catch  the  wind,  and,  not 
being  held  together  by  continuous  strands,  are 
likely  to  blow  down  in  sections.  Fuller  partic- 


271.    The  slack  gathered  up. 

ulars  concerning  the  styles  of  trellis  are  given 
in  the  discussions  of  the  different  systems  of 
training. 

Spencer  gives  the  following  supplementary  ad- 
vice for  the  trellis  and  general  lay-out  of  the 
vineyard : 

"The  vineyardists  of  the  Chautauqua  grape  belt  have  de- 
veloped a  mode  of  pruning  and  training  of  grapes  which 
has  many  features  peculiar  to  that  district.  The  trellis  is 
made  of  two  wires,  of  No.  9  or  No.  10  gauge,  and  chestnut 
posts.  The  posts  are  from  six  feet  to  eight  feet  in  length, 
and  cost  one  cent  per  lineal  foot  at  the  railroad  station. 
In  later  years,  since  experience  has  shown  how  important 
air  and  sunshine  are  in  ripening  the  fruit,  eight-foot  posts 
are  most  commonly  used.  Grape  posts  should  be  somewhat 


LAYING    OUT    THE    VINEYARD  425 

heavier  than  those  commonly  used  for  wire  fence — from  a 
third  to  a  half  larger — and  the  heaviest  should  be  sorted 
out  for  the  end  posts,  for  these  bear  the  strain  of  the  wire. 
An  experienced  farmer  need  not  be  told  that  they  should  be 
sharpened  with  a  true  lead -pencil  taper,  excepting  the 
crooked  ones,  which  should  be  so  beveled  as  to  counteract 
the  crook  in  driving. 

"The  usual  distance  apart  for  the  posts  in  the  row  of 
grapes  is  one  post  to  every  three  vines,  or,  in  other  words, 
twenty- seven  feet,  and  for  ease-  in  stretching  the  wire,  they 
should  be  in  as  straight  a  line  as  possible.  The  posts  are 
driven,  but  a  hole  should  first  be  made  by  an  unusually 
large  crowbar  with  a  bulb  near  the  lower  end.  After  the 
posts  are  stuck  into  the  holes,  they  are  most  conveniently 
driven  by  the  operator  standing  in  a  wagon  which  is  hauled 
through  the  row  by  a  horse.  A  fair  weight  of  maul  is 
twelve  pounds,  and  it  requires  a  good  man  to  swing  one  of 
that  size  all  day.  Iron  mauls  are  commonly  used  because 
they  are  the  cheapest,  but  one  with  an  iron  shell  filled  with 
wood  "brooms"  or  frays  the  top  of  the  post  less  than  the 
iron  maul.  Eighteen  inches  is  a  fair  depth  to  drive  the 
posts  on  most  soils.  If  the  proprietor  delegates  the  driving 
to  another  man,  he  had  better  direct  that  twenty  and 
twenty-two  inches  be  the  proper  depth,  for  to  the  man 
swinging  the  maul  the  post  seems  deeper  than  it  really  is. 

"A  vineyard  should  have  a  break  or  an  alley  at  right 
angles  to  the  rows  as  often  as  every  fifty  grape  vines,  for 
the  purpose  of  dumping  grape  brush  and  shortening  the 
trip  when  hauling  fauit.  If  the  vineyard  is  in  fair  thrift, 
longer  rows  will  give  so  much  brush  as  to  be  inconvenient 
in  hauling  out. 

"  The  end  posts  should  not  only  be  the  largest  of  the  lot, 
but  should  also  be  well  braced.  The  most  common  mode  is 
the  "hypotenuse  brace,"  consisting  of  a  stiff  rail  or  a  four- 
by-four  scantling  twelve  feet  long,  with  one  end  notched 
into  the  post  about  midway  between  the  two  wires,  and  the 


426  AMERICAN    GEAPE    TRAINING 

other  end  resting  on  the  ground  against  a  two -foot  peg  of 
about  the  same  size  as  the  end  post. 

"The  wires  (two  wires  in  the  Chautauqua  trellis)  should 
be  strung  on  the  windward  side  of  the  post ;  that  is,  on  the 
side  from  which  the  prevailing  winds  come.  This  is  very 
important  when  the  wind  is  blowing  at  thirty  to  forty  miles 
an  hour,  and  the  vines  have  sails  of  many  square  feet  of 
foliage,  and  perhaps  three  and  four  tons  of  fruit  per  acre. 
The  staples  should  be  of  the  same  gauge  of  wire  as  that 
used  in  barbed  wire  fences,  but  about  one-half  inch  longer, 
unless  the  grape  posts  should  be  of  hard  wood  like  locust, 
then  fence  staples  will  be  long  enough.  The  bottom  trellis 
wire  is  usually  placed  from  twenty -eight  to  thirty -two 
inches  from  the  ground.  Owing  to  the  arm  system  of 
pruning  in  the  Chautauqua  grape  belt,  the  height  of  the 
lower,  trellis  wire  is  permanent.  The  upper  trellis  wire  is, 
in  many  instances,  raised  as  the  vineyard  comes  to  ma- 
turity. The  first  year  of  fruiting,  it  may  not  be  more  than 
twenty-four  inches  above  the  lower  wire,  and  year  by  year 
be  raised  to  thirty  and  thirty-two  inches.  It  is  not  ad- 
visable to  go  more  than  thirty -six  inches  apart  without 
putting  in  a  middle  or  third  wire.  Each  spring  many  of  the 
posts  will  sag,  and  the  upper  wire  will  be  slack,  and  many 
of  the  braces  will  be  out  of  place.  All  of  these  faults 
should  be  corrected  just  before  tying  up  the  canes." 

TYING 

Probably  the  best  material  for  tying  the  canes 
and  shoots  to  the  trellis  is  raffia.  This  is  a  bast- 
like  material  which  comes  in  skeins,  and  which  can 
be  bought  of  seedsmen  and  nurserymen  for  about 
twenty  cents  a  pound.  A  pound  will  suffice  to  tie 
a  quarter  of  an  acre  of  upright  training  through- 
out the  season.  Raffia  is  obtained  from  the  strip- 


TYING    THE    VINES  427 

pings  of  an  oriental  palm  (RapMa  Ruffia).  Wool- 
twine  is  also  still  largely  used  for  tying,  but  it  is 
not  so  cheap  and  handy  as  raffia,  and  it  usually 
has  to  be  cut  when  the  trellis  is  stripped  at  the 
winter  pruning,  while  the  raffia  breaks  with  a 
quick  pull  of  the  vine.  Some  complain  that  the 
raffia  is  not  strong  enough  to  hold  the  vine  during 
the  season,  but  it  can  easily  be  doubled.  Osier 
willows  are  much  used  for  tying  up  the  old  canes 
in  the  spring,  and  also  for  summer  tying,  espe- 
cially in  the  nursery  regions  where  the  slender 
trimmings  of  the  cultivated  osier  willows  are  easily 
procured.  Wild  willows  are  often  used  if  they 
can  be  obtained  easily.  These  willows  are  tied 
up  in  a  small  bundle,  which  is  held  upon  the  back 
above  the  hips  by  a  cord  passed  about  the  body. 
The  butts  project  under  the  right  hand,  if  the 
person  is  right-handed,  and  the  strands  are  pulled 
out  as  needed.  The  butt  is  first  used,  the  tie  be- 
ing made  with  a  twist  and  tuck,  the  strand  is  then 
cut  off  with  a  knife,  and  the  twig  is  employed  in 
like  manner  until  it  is  used  up.  When  wool- twine 
is  used,  the  ball  is  often  held  in  front  of  the  work- 
man by  a  cord  which  is  tied  about  it  and  then 
passed  about  the  waist.  The  ball  is  unwound  from 
the  inside,  and  it  will  hold  its  shape  until  the  end 
becomes  so  short  that  it  will  easily  drag  upon  the 
ground.  Some  workmen  carry  the  ball  in  a  bag, 
after  the  manner  of  carrying  seed -corn.  Raffia  is 
not  so  easily  carried  in  the  field  as  the  wool -twine 


428  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

or  the  willow,  and  this  fact  interferes  with  its 
popularity.  Green  rye  straw,  cut  directly  from 
the  field,  is  much  used  for  tying  the  shoots  in 
summer.  Small  wire,  about  two -thirds  the  size 
of  broom -wire,  is  used  occasionally  for  tying  up 
the  canes  in  spring,  but  it  must  be  used  with  care 
or  it  will  injure  the  vine.  Corn -husks  are  also 
employed  for  this  purpose  when  they  can  be  se- 
cured. Bass -bark  is  sometimes  used  for  tying, 
but  in  most  of  the  grape  regions  it  is  difficult  to 
secure,  and  it  has  no  advantage  over  raffia. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  old  -canes  be  tied 
up  early  in  spring,  for  the  buds  are  easily  broken 
after  they  begin  to  swell.  These  canes  are  tied 
rather  firmly  to  the  wires  to  hold  them  steady  ; 
but  the  growing  shoots,  which  are  tied  during  the 
summer,  are  fastened  more  loosely,  to  allow  of  the 
necessary  increase  in  diameter. 

Further  advice   on  tying  is   given  by  Spencer: 

"Tying  is  done  by  women,  boys  and  girls  and  cheap 
men.  The  tying  materials  are  wire,  wool-twine,  raffia, 
willow  and  carpet-rags.  By  turning  to  Fig.  278,  it  will  be 
seen  how  the  canes  are  arrayed  on  the  two  trellises  after  the 
Chautauqua  method.  The  horizontal  arms,  at  the  lower 
wire,  are  more  or  less  permanent,  and  they  are  loosely 
confined  to  the  wire,  always  by  string  or  willow.  The 
vertical  canes,  which  are  fastened  to  the  top  trellis,  are  now 
universally  tied  with  annealed  wire  of  No.  18  gauge,  and  cut 
in  lengths  of  four  inches.  The  economy  in  using  the  wire 
is  the  despatch  in  tying,  and  the  fact  that  the  work  can  be 
done  on  cool  days  when  light  gloves  are  necessary.  The 


272.     Tying  with  wire.     The  first 
movement. 


273.     The  second  movement. 


274.     The  third  movement. 


275.     The  tie  complete. 


430  AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING 

use  of  wire  has  been  strenuously  opposed  by  people  who 
have  never  used  it.  The  objection  has  been  that  the  fine 
wire  would  chafe  the  cane  so  that  the  cane  would  break  and 
fall  from  the  trellis.  Such  instances  occur  rarely,  and 
when  they  do,  it  is  so  late  in  the  season  that  the  tendrils  of 
the  vine  are  ample  to  hold  it  to  the  trellis.  The  cane 
should  be  tied  to  the  windward  side  of  the  wire  for  the 
same  reason  that  the  wire  was  stapled  on  the  windward  side 
of  the  post.  In  using  the  wire  tie,  the  operator  stands  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  trellis  from  the  cane,  and  follows 
the  movements  as  illustrated  in  Figs.  272-275.  This  opera- 
tion puts  on  the  wire  with  the  fewest  number  of  move- 
ments, binds  the  cane  snug  to  the  trellis,  and  makes  a  loop 
that  falls  from  the  trellis  on  the  following  season,  when  the 
cane  is  torn  away.  The  tying  wire  should  be  thoroughly 
annealed,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  bent  and  give  no  springy 
reaction  after  being  worked.  This  wire  is  also  useful  in 
tying  thorny  shrubs  to  a  trellis  when  a  mittened  hand  is 
necessary  to  hold  the  branches  in  place  while  the  other 
hand  makes  the  tie." 


CHAPTER   VIII 


AMERICAN     GRAPE     TRAINING,     CON- 
CLUDED—THE  VARIOUS    MODES 

The  grape  is  trained  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
the  vine  in  convenient  shape  and  to  allow  each 
cluster  to  receive  its  full  share  of  space  and 
light.  A  well  trained  vine  is  easily  cultivated  and 
sprayed,  and  the  grapes  are  readily  harvested,  and 
it  is  only  upon  such  vines  that  the  best  and  fairest 
fruit  is  uniformly  produced.  Some  kind  of  train- 
ing is  essential,  for  a  vine  will  not  often  bear  good 
fruit  when  it  lies  upon  the  ground.  Grape  train- 
ing is  described  by  one  vineyardist  as  a  process 
of  hanging  the  vine  up  for  air  and  sunshine,  and 
he  thinks  that  different  ways  of  accomplishing  that 
object  may  be  equally  good.  He  likens  it  to  the 
hanging -out  of  a  washing.  He  says  that  his 
mother  and  his  wife  each  has  her  particular  way 
of  putting  a  washing  on  the  line,  and  each  is 
punctilious  that  her  favorite  method  shall  be  ob- 
served. He  says  that  he  speaks  from  experience, 
for  he  has  been  bossed  by  both. 

In  essence,  there  are  three  general  types  or 
styles  of  training,  which  may  be  denominated 
the  upright,  drooping,  and  horizontal,  these  terms 

(431) 


432    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

designating  the  direction  of  the  bearing  shoots.* 
The  upright  systems  carry  two  or  more  canes  or 
arms  along  a  low  horizontal  wire,  or  sometimes 
obliquely  across  a  trellis  from  below  upwards,  and 
the  shoots  are  tied  up,  as  they  grow,  to  t'he  wires 
above.  The  horizontal  systems  carry  up  a  per- 
pendicular cane  or  arm,  or  sometimes  two  or 
more,  from  which  the  shoots  are  carried  out  hori- 
zontally, and  are  tied  to  perpendicular  wires  or 
posts.  The  drooping  systems,  represented  in  the 
Kniffin  and  post -training,  carry  the  canes  or  arms 
up  on  a  high  horizontal  wire  or  trellis,  and  allow 
the  shoots  to  hang  without  tying.  To  one  or 
another  of  these  types  all  the  systems  of  American 
grape  training  can  be  referred. 

There  is  no  system  of  training  which  is  best  for 
all  purposes  and  all  varieties.  The  strong -grow- 
ing varieties  more  readily  adapt  themselves  to  the 
high,  drooping  systems  than  the  weaker  varieties, 
although  the  Delaware  is  often  trained  on  a  com- 
paratively low  Kniffin  with  good  effect.  The  high 
or  drooping  systems  are  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  and  their  particular  advantages  are  the  sav- 
ing of  labor  in  summer  tying,  cheapness  of  the 
trellis,  and  the  facility  with  which  the  ground  can 
be  cultivated  without  endangering  the  branches  of 
the  vine.  The  upright  training  distributes  the 
bearing  wood  more  evenly  upon  the  vine,  and  is 

*  Classification  first  made  in  the  original  edition  of  "American  Grape 
Training." 


THE  DIFFERENT  SYSTEMS         433 

thought,  therefore,  to  insure  more  uniform  fruit ; 
it  keeps  the  top  near  the  root,  which  is  sometimes 
thought  to  be  an  advantage,  and  it  is  better  suited 
to  the  stature  of  the  small -growing  varieties. 
There  is,  perhaps,  a  greater  temptation  to  neglect 
the  vines  in  the  drooping  systems  than  in  the 
others,  because  the  shoots  need  no  tying,  and  do 
not,  therefore,  demand  frequent  attention,  whereas 
in  the  upright  systems  the  shoots  soon  become 
broken  or  displaced  if  not  watched.  For  very 
large  areas,  or  circumstances  in  which  the  best  of 
care  cannot  be  given  the  vineyard,  the  Kniffin  or 
drooping  systems  are  perhaps  always  to  be  recom- 
mended. Yet  the  Kniffin  profits  as  much  from 
diligence  and  skill  as  the  other  systems  ;  but  it 
will  give  better  results  than  the  others  under 
partial  neglect.  The  strong  varieties,  especially 
those  making  long  and  drooping  canes,  are  well 
adapted  to  the  Kniffin  styles  ;  but  the  smaller 
sorts,  and  those  stronger  kinds  which,  like  Ca- 
tawba,  make  an  upright  and  stocky  growth,  are 
usually  trained  on  the  upright  systems.  But  the 
merits  of  both  systems  are  so  various  and  even  so 
little  understood,  that  it  is  impossible  to  recom- 
mend either  one  unqualifiedly.  The  advantages 
in  either  case  are  often  little  more  than  matters 
of  personal  opinion.  It  should  be  said,  however, 
that  the  Kniffin  or  drooping  systems  are  gaining 
in  favor  rapidly,  and  are  evidently  destined  to 
overthrow  much  of  the  older  upright  training. 

EB 


434    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

This  fact  does  not  indicate,  however,  that  the 
upright  system  is  to  be  entirely  superseded,  but 
rather  that  it  must  be  confined  to  those  varieties 
and  conditions  for  which  it  is  best  adapted.  The 
two  systems  will  undoubtedly  supplement  each 
other.  The  horizontal  systems  are  occasionally 
used  for  choice  varieties,  but  they  are  little 
known. 

To  Mr.  Spencer,  who  has  observed  many  modes 
of  training,  the  subject  appeals  as  follows  :  "  The 
fundamental  idea  of  grape  pruning  is  to  find  the 
proper  balance  between  the  energy  which  the  vine 
has  and  the  labor  that  it  is  expected  to  perform. 
What  we  treat  as  training  is  nothing  more  or  less 
than  spreading  the  vines  to  light  and  air,  and 
there  are  many  ways  of  doing  it.  Many  of  them 
are  good,  and  some  better  for  some  varieties  of 
grapes  and  for  certain  locations.  As  a  rule,  the 
difference  in  results  of  different  methods  of  train- 
ing is  not  worth  the  contention  that  it  has  pro- 
voked. The  great  point  is  to  determine  what 
the  plant  is  capable  of  doing,  and  then  to  cut 
and  train  the  top  to  correspond.  Select  any 
system  of  training  which  you  fancy  or  with  which 
your  help  is  the  most  familiar,  anu  then  leave 
your  wood  in  the  form  most  convenient  for  that 
system." 

Spencer  gives  the  following  notes  on  general 
methods  of  grape  pruning  in  the  Chautauqua 
vineyards: 


PRUNING    IN    CHAUTAUQUA  435 

"A  large  part  of  the  pruning  is  done  in  the  winter  months 
— some  beginning  in  the  fall  soon  after  the  crop  is  har- 
vested. Two  grades  of  labor  can  be  employed  in  this  opera- 
tion—the skilled  and  the  unskilled.  The  man  of  skill,  or  the 
expert,  goes  ahead  and  blocks  out.  He  stands  in  front  of  a 
vine  of  far  more  tangled  brush  than  that  seen  in  Fig.  282, 
and,  at  a  glance,  tells  by  a  judgment  ripened  by  much  ob- 
servation, just  how  many  buds  are  required  to  ballast  and 
not  over-ballast  the  vine  for  another  year.  As  the  expert 
stands  before  the  vine  making  the  estimate,  he  might  be 
likened  to  a  man  weighing  a  ham  with  steelyards,  pushing 
the  weight  backward  and  forward,  notch  by  notch,  finding 
the  point  of  balance.  The  expert,  with  his  pruning  shears, 
makes  a  dive  here  and  a  lunge  there,  a  clip  at  the  bottom 
and  a  snip  at  the  top,  and  with  a  few  more  seemingly  wild 
passes,  all  wood  is  severed  from  the  bearing  vine,  but  the 
number  of  buds  desired  to  give  fruit  another  year  are  left. 
The  unskilled  help,  who  receives  possibly  a  dollar  a  day 
less  than  the  expert,  follows  the  expert,  cutting  the  tendrils 
and  other  parts  of  the  vine  that  are  attached  to  anything 
but  the  trellis.  The  next  process  is  ' stripping'  the  brush, 
and  it  is  one  involving  brute  force,  ragged  clothes  and 
leather  mittens.  If  the  laborer  does  not  put  on  a  ragged 
suit,  he  will  be  apt  to  have  one  before  he  is  done  with  his 
job.  There  is  a  little  knack  even  in  doing  this  work  to  the 
best  advantage.  The  dismembered  vines  still  hang  to  the 
upper  trellis  and  often  cling  with  considerable  tenacity, 
and  a  particular  jerk  or  yank,  more  easily  demonstrated 
than  described,  is  most  effectual  to  land  the  brush  on  the 
ground  between  the  rows.  - 

"The  next  operation  is  to  haul  the  brush  out  to  the  end 
of  the  row.  Many  tools  have  been  devised  for  this  purpose, 
some  of  them  involving  considerable  expense.  It  is  now 
the  universal  practice  to  use  a  simple  pole— one  a  little 
larger  than  would  be  used  to  bind  a  load  of  logs,  and  not 
so  large  as  required  in  binding  a  load  of  hay.  It  may  be  a 


436    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

sapling  about  four  inches  at  the  butt  and  two  and  one -half 
inches  at  the  top,  and  ten  to  twelve  feet  long.  The  small 
end  is  to  be  held  in  the  right  hand,  and  the  butt  end  to  be 
pushed  along  the  ground.  A  horse  is  hitched  to  this  pole 
by  a  rope  drawn  through  an  inch  hole  about  four  feet  from 
the  butt  or  ground  end.  When  starting  at  the  end  of  the 
row,  it  seems  that  the  straight  pole  would  not  gather  any 
brush  at  all.  It  is  a  question  of  catching  the  first  wad,  and 
all  the  rest  of  the  brush  will  cling  to  it.  At  the  end  of  the 
row,  the  brush  is  hauled  to  a  convenient  pile,  where  it  is  to 
be  burned,  and  is  dumped  by  letting  the  end  of  the  pole 
held  in  the  hand  revolve  over  towards  the  horse.  If  the 
pole  hits  the  horse,  the  operator  will  see  that  there  is  not 
enough  stretch  of  rope  between  the  pole  and  whiffletree, 
and  more  must  be  provided." 

The  cost  of  pruning  an  acre  of  grapes  is  re- 
ported as  follows:* 

Blocking  out .     ."".$1.00 

Cutting  curls  .     .     ....     .     .     .     1.50 

Stripping,  removing  brush,  tapping 
posts,  stretching  wire     .     .     .     .     1.50 

Labor  of  tying 1.50 

Cost  of  ties     .     .     .  • .25 

$575 

THE    UPRIGHT  SYSTEMS 

The  upright  systems  are  the  oldest  and  best 
known  of  the  styles  of  American  grape  training. 
They  consist,  essentially,  in  carrying  out  two  hori- 
zontal canes,  or  sometimes  arms,  upon  a  low  wire, 


"John  W.  Spencer,  Proc.  W.  New  York  Hort.  Soc.,  1896,  p.  44. 


HORIZONTAL    ARM  437 

and  training  the  shoots  from  them  vertically. 
These  shoots  are  tied  to  the  upper  wires  as  they 
grow.  This  type  was  first  clearly  and  forcibly 
described  in  detail  by  A.  S.  Fuller,  in  his  "Grape 
Culturist,"  in  1864,  and  it  became  known  as  the 
Fuller  system,  although  it  was  practiced  many 
years  previous  to  this  time. 

HORIZONTAL  ARM  SPUR  SYSTEM.— There  are  two 
types,  or  styles,  of  this  upright  system.  The  older 
type  and  the  one  described  in  the  books,  is  known 
as  the  Horizontal  Arm  Spur  training.  In  this 
method,  the  two  horizontal  branches  are  perma- 
nent, or,  in  other  words,  they  are  true  arms.  The 
canes  are  cut  back  each  fall  to  upright  spurs  on 
these  arms,  as  explained  on  page  409  (Fig.  261). 
Two  shoots  are  often  allowed  to  grow  from  each 
of  these  spurs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  276.  These 
spurs  become  overgrown  and  weak  after  a  few 
years,  and  they  are  renewed  from  new  shoots 
which  spring  from  near  their  base  or  from  the  arm 
itself.  Sometimes  the  whole  arm  is  renewed  from 
the  head  of  the  vine,  or  even  from  the  ground. 

The  number  of  these  upright  canes  and  their 
distance  apart  upon  these  permanent  arms  depend 
upon  the  variety,  the  strength  of  the  vine  and 
soil,  and  the  fancy  of  the  grower.  From  twelve 
to  twenty  inches  apart  upon  the  arm  is  the  com- 
mon distance.  If  a  vine  is  strong  enough  to  carry 
five  canes  and  the  vines  are  eight  feet  apart,  then 
the  canes  are  distributed  at  intervals  of  about 


438     AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

twenty  inches.     Some   very  strong  vines  of   vig- 
orous varieties  will  carry  eight  canes  upon  the  two 


;/,*  v*v* 


27G.     Horizontal  arm  spur  training. 

arms  together,  and  in  this  case  the  canes  stand 
about  a  foot  apart.  In  the  fall  or  winter,  the 
cane  is  cut  away  and  the  strongest  new  cane 
which  springs  from  its  base  is  left  for  the  bearing 
wood  of  the  following  year.  This  new  cane  is 
itself  headed -in  to  the  height  of  the  trellis  ;  that 
is,  if  the  uppermost  and  lowermost  wires  are 
thirty -four  inches  apart — as  they  are  in  the  Broc- 
ton  vineyards  of  Western  New  York,  where  a 
modification  of  this  system  is  largely  used — this 
new  cane  is  shortened -in  to  about  thirty -six  inches 
long.  On  this  length  of  cane  there  will  be  about 
seven  good  buds  in  the  common  varieties. 
A  modification  of  this  horizontal  arm  system  is 


HORIZONTAL    ARM 


439 


shown  in  Fig.  278.  It  is  used  in  the  vineyards 
of  Chautauqua  county,  New  York.  The  arms  in 
this  case  are  very  short,  and  canes  are  taken  out 
only  at  two  or  three  places.  The  picture  shows  a 
vine  in  which  two  or  three  canes  are  taken  from 


277.    Horizontal  arm.     (Diagram.) 


the  end  of  each  arm,  making  five  canes  for  the 
bearing  top  of  the  vine.  These  canes  are  cut  back 
to  spurs  in  the  fall,  as  explained  in  the  above 
paragraph.  Sometimes  one  or  two  other  canes  are 
taken  out  of  these  arms  nearer  the  main  trunk. 
One  is  taken  out  in  Fig.  278.  The  advantages 
urged  for  this  style  of  training  are  the  stronger 
growth  which  is  insured  by  so  few  canes,  and  the 


440    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

small  amount  of  old  or  permanent  wood  which  is 
left  to  each  vine. 

The  true  horizontal  arm  training  is  less  popular 
than  it  was  twenty  years  ago.  It  has  serious 
faults,  especially  in  the  persistence  of  the  old 


278.     Chautauqua  or  Brocton  training. 

spurs,  and  probably  will  eventually  give  place 
to  other  systems.  Aside  from  the  spur-pruning, 
the  system  is  much  like  the  following,  which  is 
a  modification  to  allow  of  renewal,  and  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred  for  further  details.  This 
modification,  which  may  be  called  the  High  Re- 
newal,* and  which  is  one  of  the  most  serviceable 

Term  first  used  in  the  original  edition  of  "  American  Grape  Train- 
ing," 1893. 


HIGH    RENEWAL    TRAINING  441 

of  any  of  the  styles  of  training,  although  it  has 
never  been  fully  described,  we  shall  now  consider. 
THE  HIGH  RENEWAL.— This  is  an  upright  train- 
ing which  is  now  very  extensively  employed  in  the 
lake  regions  of  New  York  and  elsewhere.  It 
starts  the  head  or  branches  of  the  vine  from 
eighteen  to  thirty  inches  from  the  ground.  The 
ideal  height  for  most  varieties  is  probably  about 


r(<W 

279.     The  second  season  of  upright  training. 

two  feet  to  the  first  wire,  although  thirty  inches 
is  better  than  eighteen.  If  the  vines  are  lower 
than  two  feet,  they  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  the 
plow  or  cultivator,  the  earth  is  dashed  against  the 
clusters  by  heavy  rains,  and  if  the  shoots  become 
loose  they  strike  the  ground  and  the  grapes  are 
soon  soiled.  A  single  trunk  or  arm  is  carried  up 
to  the  required  height,  or  if  good  branches  hap- 
pen to  form  lower  down,  two  main  canes  are  car- 
ried from  this  point  up  to  the  required  distance  to 
meet  the  lower  wire,  so  that  the  trunk  becomes  Y- 
shaped,  as  seen  in  Figs.  279,  281,  285.  In  fact, 


OF  THF 


442     AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 


vineyardists  usually  prefer  to  have  this  head  or 
crotch  a  few  inches  below  the  lowest  wire,  to 
facilitate  the  spreading  and  placing  of  the  canes. 
The  trellis  for  the  upright  systems  nearly  always 
comprises  three  wires,  although  only  two  are  some- 
times used  for  the  smaller -growing  varieties,  and 

very  rarely 
four  are 
used  for 

the  strongest  kinds,  although 
this  number  is  unnecessary. 
The  lowest  wire  is  stretched  at 
eighteen,  twenty -four  or  thirty 
inches  from  the  ground,  and 
the  two  upper  ones  are  placed 
at  distances  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  inches  apart. 

The  second  season  after  plant- 
ing should  see  the  vine  tied  to 
the  first  wire.  Fig.  279  is  a 
photograph  taken  in  July,  1892, 
of  a  Concord  vine  which  was 
set  in  the  spring  of  1891.  In 
,the  fall  of  1891,  the  vine  was 
cut  back  to  three  or  four  buds, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1892,  two 
of  these  buds  were  allowed  to 
make  canes.  These  two  canes  are  now  tied  to 
the  wire,  which  was  stretched  in  the  spring  of 
1892.  In  this  case,  the  branches  start  near  the 


280.     Making  the 
T-head. 


HIGH    RENEWAL  443 

surface  of  the  ground.  Sometimes  only  a  single 
strong  shoot  grows,  and  in  order  to  secure  the 
two  branches  it  is  broken  over  where  it  passes 
the  wire,  and  is  usually  tied  to  a  stake  to  afford 
support.  Fig.  280  shows  this  operation.  A  bud 
will  develop  at  the  bend  or  break,  from  which 

V 


281.     The  third  season  of  high  renewal.     Concord. 

a  cane  can  be  trained  in  the  opposite  direction 
from  the  original  portion,  and  the  T-head  is 
secured. 

The  close  of  the  second  season  after  planting, 
therefore,  will  usually  find  the  vine  with  two  good 
canes  extending  in  opposite  directions,  and  tied 
to  the  wire.  The  pruning  at  that  time  will  con- 
sist in  cutting  off  the  ends  of  these  canes  back  to 
firm  and  strong  wood,  which  will  leave  them  bear- 
ing from  five  to  eight  buds.  The  third  season, 
shoots  will  grow  upright  from  these  buds  and  will 
be  tied  to  the  second  wire,  which  has  now  been 
supplied.  Late  in  the  third  season  the  vine 
should  have  much  the  appearance  of  that  shown 


444    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

in  Fig.  281.  The  third  wire  is  usually  added  to 
the  trellis  at  the  close  of  the  second  season,  at 
the  same  time  that  the  second  wire  is  put  on  ;  but 
occasionally  this  is  delayed  until  the  close  of  the 
third  season.  Some  of  the  upright  shoots  may 
bear  a  few  grapes  this  third  season,  but  unless 
the  vines  are  very  strong,  the  flower  clusters 
should  be  removed ;  and  a  three -year -old  vine 
should  never  be  allowed  to  bear  heavily.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  both  these  hori- 
zontal canes,  with  all  their  mass  of  herbage,  are 
to  be  cut  away  in  the  fall  or  winter  of  the  third 
year.  Some  provision  must  have  been  made, 
therefore,  for  the  top  for  the  fourth  year.  It  will 
be  recalled  that  in  discussing  the  renewal  pruning 
(page  411,  Fig.  262) ,  it  was  found  that  two  or  more 
shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  each  year  to  form  the 
basis  of  the  top  the  following  year.  In  Fig.  281 
three  or  four  such  shoots  can  be  seen  springing 
from  the  Y-shaped  portion  in  the  center  of  the 
vine.  These  shoots  or  canes  are  to  be  bent 
down  to  the  lowest  wire  next  spring,  and  the 
bearing  shoots  will  arise  from  them.  This  pro- 
cess will  be  seen  at  a  glance  from  Figs.  282,  283 
and  284.  The  first  shows  a  full-grown  old  vine, 
trained  on  three  wires.  Fig.  283  shows  the  same 
vine  when  pruned.  Two  long  canes,  with  six  or 
eight  buds  each,  are  left  to  form  the  top  of  the 
following  year.  The  two  stubs  from  which  the 
renewal  canes  are  to  grow  for  the  second  year's 


446    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

top,  are  seen  in  the  center.  In  the  fall  of  the 
next  year,  therefore,  these  two  outside  canes  will 
be  cut  away  to  the  base  of  these  renewal  stubs ; 
and  the  renewal  canes,  in  the  meantime,  will  have 


283,    High  renewal,  pruned, 

made  a  year's  growth.  These  renewal  stubs  in 
this  picture  are  really  spurs,  as  will  be  seen  ;  that 
is,  they  contain  two  ages  of  wood.  It  is  the  pur- 
pose, however,  to  remove  these  stubs  or  spurs 
every  two  or  three  years  at  most,  and  to  bring 
new  canes  directly  from  the  old  wood  or  head. 


448    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

If  possible,  the  renewal  cane  is  brought  from  a 
new  place  on  the  old  wood  every  year,  in  order  to 
avoid  a  spur.  Such  was  the  case  in  the  vine 
shown  in  Fig.  262,  page  410.  Fig.  284  shows 
the  vine  tied  down  to  the  lowest  wire.  Two 
ties  have  been  made  upon  each  cane.  Fig.  285 
shows  a  vine  in  which  four  canes  have  been  left 
to  form  the  top  for  the  following  year.  The  stubs 
for  the  renewals  can  be  seen  in  the  Y.  It  is 
customary  to  leave  more  than  two  canes,  occasion- 
ally, in  strong -growing  varieties  like  Concord. 
Sometimes  four,  and  occasionally  six  are  left.  If 
four  canes  are  left,  two  may  be  tied  together  in 
each  direction  on  the  bottom  wire.  If  six  are 
used,  the  two  extra  ones  should  be  tied  along  the 
second  wire,  parallel  with  the  lowest  ones.  These 
extra  canes  are  sometimes  tied  obliquely  across 
the  trellis,  but  this  practice  should  be  discouraged, 
for  the  usual  tendency  of  the  vine  is  to  make  its 
greatest  growth  at  the  top,  and  the  lower  buds 
may  fail  to  bear. 

The  ideal  length  of  the  two  canes  varies  with 
different  varieties  and  the  distance  apart  at  which 
the  vines  are  set.  Very  strong  kinds,  like  Con- 
cord and  Niagara,  can  carry  ten  or  twelve  buds  on 
each  cane,  especially  if  the  vines  are  set  more  than 
eight  feet  apart.  Fig.  286  shows  half  of  a  Con- 
cord vine  in  which  about  ten  buds  were  left  on 
each  cane.  These  strong  sorts  can  often  carry 
forty  or  fifty  buds  to  the  vine  to  advantage,  but 


HIGH    RENEWAL  449 

when  this  number  is  left  the  canes  should  be  four, 
as  explained  in  the  last  paragraph.  In  Delaware 
and  other  weak -growing  varieties,  twenty  or 
twenty -five  buds  to  the  vine  should  be  the  maxi- 
mum and  only  two  canes  should  be  left.  In  short- 
jointed  varieties,  the  canes  are  usually  cut  to  the 
desired  length — four  to  six  feet — even  if  too  great 
a  number  of  buds  is  left,  but  the  shoots  which 
spring  from  these  extra  buds  are  broken  out  soon 
after  they  start.  A  Delaware  vine  which  has  made 
an  unusually  short  or  weak  growth  will  require 
fewer  buds  to  be  left  for  next  year's  top  than  a 
neighboring  vine  of  the  same  variety  which  has 
made  a  strong  growth.  The  Catawba,  which  is  a 
short  but  very  stiff  grower,  is  usually  cut  back 
to  six  or  eight  buds,  as  seen  in  Figs.  282,  283, 
284.  Fig.  287  is  a  good  Catawba  vine  four  years 
set. 

The  grower  soon  learns  to  adjust  the  pruning  to 
the  character  of  the  vine,  without  effort.  He  has 
in  his  mind  a  certain  ideal  crop  of  grapes,  per- 
haps about  so  many  bunches,  and  he  leaves  enough 
buds  to  produce  this  amount,  allowing,  perhaps, 
ten  per  cent  of  the  buds  for  accidents  and  barren 
shoots.  He  knows,  too,  that  the  canes  should 
always  be  cut  back  to  firm,  well -ripened  wood. 
It  should  be  said  that  mere  size  of  cane  does  not 
indicate  its  value  as  a  fruit -bearing  branch. 
Hard,  smooth  wood  of  medium  size  usually  gives 
better  results  than  the  very  large  and  softer  canes 
cc 


450     AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

which  are  sometimes  produced  on  soils  rich  in 
nitrogenous  manures.  This  large  and  overgrown 
wood  is  known  as  a  "bull  cane."  A  cane  does 
not  attain  its  full  growth  the  first  year,  but  will 
increase  in  diameter  during  the  second  season. 
The  tying,  therefore,  should  be  sufficiently  loose 


285.     High  renewal  with  four  canes. 

or  elastic  to  allow  of  growth,  although  it  should 
be  firm  enough  to  hold  the  cane  constantly  in 
place.  The  cane  should  not  be  hung  from  the 
wire,  but  tied  close  to  it,  provision  being  made 
for  the  swelling  of  the  wood  to  twice  its  diameter. 

The  shoots  are  tied  to  the  second  wire  soon  after 
they  pass  it,  or  have  attained  firmness  enough  to 
allow  of  tying,  and  the  same  shoots  are  tied  again 
to  the  top  wire.  All  the  shoots  do  not  grow  with 
equal  rapidity,  and  the  vineyard  must  be  gone 
over  more  than  twice  if  the  shoots  are  kept  prop- 


HIGH     RENEWAL  451 

erly  tied.  Perhaps  four  times  over  the  vineyard 
will  be  all  that  is  necessary  for  careful  summer 
tying.  Many  vineyardists  tie  only  once  or  twice, 
but  this  neglect  should  be  discouraged.  This 
tying  is  mostly  done  with  green  rye  straw  or  raffia. 
A  piece  of  straw  about  ten  inches  long  is  used 
for  each  tie,  it  usually  being  wrapped  but  once 
about  the  shoot.  The  knot  is  made  with  a  twist 


286.    High  renewal  complete.     Concord. 

and  tuck.  If  raffia  is  used,  a  common  string- 
knot  is  made.  When  the  shoots  reach  the  top  of 
the  trellis,  they  are  usually  allowed  to  take  care 
of  themselves.  The  Catawba  shoots  stand  nearly 
erect  above  the  top  wire,  and  ordinarily  need  no 
attention.  The  long -growing  varieties  will  be 
likely  to  drag  the  shoots  on  the  ground  before 
the  close  of  the  season.  If  these  tips  interfere 
with  the  cultivation,  they  may  be  clipped  off  with 
a  sickle  or  corn -cutter,  although  this  practice 
should  be  delayed  as  long  as  possible  to  prevent 
the  growth  of  laterals  (see  page  415).  It  is  prob- 


452     AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

ably  better  to  avoid  cutting  entirely.  Some 
growers  wind  or  tie  the  longest  shoots  on  the  top 
wire,  as  seen  in  Fig.  289.  It  is  probably  best,  as  a 
rule,  to  allow  the  shoots  to  hang  over  naturally, 
and  to  clip  them  only  when  they  seriously  inter- 
fere with  the  work  of  the  hoe  and  cultivator.  The 


287.    High  renewal  in  fourth  year,  with  Catawba. 


treatment  for  slat  trellises  is  essentially  the  same 
as  on  wire  trellises,  except  that  longer  strings 
must  be  used  in  tying. 

It  is  apparent  that  nearly  or  quite  all  the  fruit 
in  the  High  Renewal  is  borne  between  the  first 
and  second  wires,  at  the  bottom  of  the  trellis.  If 
the  lower  wire  is  twenty  -four  or  thirty  inches 
high,  this  fruit  will  hang  at  the  most  convenient 
height  for  picking.  The  fruit  trays  are  set  upon 


HIGH     RENEWAL  453 

the  ground,  and  both  hands  are  free.  The  fruit  is 
also  protected  from  the  hot  suns  and  from  frost ; 
and  if  the  shoots  are  properly  tied,  the  clusters 
are  not  shaken  roughly  by  the  wind.  It  is,  of 
course,  desirable  that  all  the  clusters  should  be 
fully  exposed  to  light  and  air,  and  all  superfluous 
shoots  should,  therefore,  be  pulled  off,  as  already 
explained  (page  415) .  In  rare  cases  it  may  also  be 
necessary,  for  this  purpose,  to  prune  the  canes 
which  droop  over  from  the  top  of  the  trellis. 

After  a  few  years,  the  old  top  or  head  of  the 
vine  becomes  more  or  less  weak,  and  it  should  be 
renewed  from  the  root.  The  thrifty  vineyardist 
anticipates  this  circumstance,  and  now  and  then 
allows  a  strong  shoot  which  may  spring  from  the 
ground  to  remain.  This  shoot  is  treated  very 
much  like  a  young  vine,  and  the  head  is  formed 
during  the  second  year  (page  408).  If  it  should 
make  a  strong  growth  during  the  first  year,  and 
develop  stout  laterals,  it  may  be  cut  back  only 
to  the  lowest  wire  the  first  fall  ;  but  in  other 
cases,  it  should  be  cut  back  to  two  or  three  buds, 
from  one  of  which  a  strong  and  permanent  shoot 
is  taken  the  second  year.  When  this  new  top 
comes  into  bearing,  the  old  trunk  is  cut  off  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  or  below,  if  possible.  A 
top  will  retain  its  vigor  for  six  or  eight  years 
under  ordinary  treatment,  and  sometimes  much 
longer.  These  tops  are  renewed  from  time  to  time 
as  occasion  permits  or  demands,  and  any  vineyard 


454    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

which  has  been  bearing  a  number  of  years  will 
nearly  always  have  a  few  vines  in  process  of  re- 
newal. The  reader  shonld  not  receive  the  impres- 
sion, however,  that  the  life  or  vitality  of  a  vine  is 
necessarily  limited.  Vines  often  continue  to  bear 
for  twenty  years  or  more  without  'renewal ;  but 
the  head  after  a  time  comes  to  be  large  and  rough 


288.     A  Concord  vine  thirty  years  old. 

and  crooked,  and  often  weakened  by  scars,  and 
better  results  are  likely  to  be  obtained  if  a  new, 
clean  vine  takes  its  place.  Fig.  288  shows  the 
great  stump  of  a  Concord  vine  thirty  years  old, 
and  which  is  still  in  thrifty  bearing  condition. 

The  High  Renewal  is  extensively  used  in  the 
lake  region  of  Western  New  York  for  all  varie- 
ties. It  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  Delaware, 
Catawba,  and  other  weak  or  short  varieties. 


FAN    SYSTEM    OF    TRAINING 


455 


When  systematically  pursued,  it  gives  fruit  of 
the  highest  excellence.  This  High  Renewal  train- 
ing, like  all  the  low  upright  systems,  allows  the 


289.     Fan-trained  Concord. 


vines  to  be  laid  down  easily  in  winter,  which  is  an 
important  consideration  in  many  parts  of  Canada 
and  in  the  colder  Northern  states.  It  is  often 
called,  but  erroneously,  the  horizontal  arm  sys- 
tem. 

FAN -TRAINING. —  A  system  much  used  a  few 
years  ago,  and  still  sometimes  seen,  is  one  which 
renews  back  nearly  to  the  ground  each  year,  and 
carries  the  fruiting  canes  up  in  a  fan -shaped 
manner.  This  system  has  the  advantages  of  dis- 
pensing with  much  of  the  old  wood,  or  trunk,  and 


456    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

facilitating  laying  down  the  vine  in  winter  in 
cold  climates.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  the  dis- 
advantages of  bearing  the  fruit  too  low — unless 
the  lower  clusters  are  removed — and  making  a 
vine  of  inconvenient  shape  for  tying.  It  is  little 
used  at  present.  Fig.  289  shows  a  fan -trained 


290.     The  vine  pruned. 

vine_  before  pruning.  Fig.  290  is  the  same  vine 
pruned,  although  it  is  by  no  means  an  ideal  plant. 
This  vine  has  not  been  properly  renewed,  but  bears 
long,  crooked  spurs,  from  which  the  canes  arise. 
One  of  these  spurs  is  seen  to  extend  beyond  the 
lower  wire.  The  spurs  should  be  kept  very  short, 
and  they  should  be  entirely  removed  every  two 


FAN -TRAINING  457 

or  three  years,  as  explained  in  the  above  discus- 
sion of  the  High  Renewal  training. 

The  shoots  are  allowed  to  take  their  natural 
course,  Jbeing  tied  to  any  wire  near  which  they 
chance  to  grow,  finally  lopping  over  the  top  wire. 
Sometimes  the  canes  are  bent  down  and  tied 
horizontally  to  the  wires,  and  this  is  probably 


291.    Marvin's  fan-training. 


the  better  practice.  Two  canes  may  be  tied  in 
each  direction  on  the  lower  wire,  or  the  two  in- 
ner canes  may  be  tied  down  to  the  second  wire. 
In  either  case,  the  vine  is  essentially  like  the 
High  Renewal,  except  that  the  trunk  is  shorter. 

Another  form  of  fan -training,  which  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Kelly's  Island  System,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  291,  and  is  thus  described:*  "The  engrav- 
ing represents  a  sample  vine  ten  years  old  pruned. 


*D.  S.  Marvin,  Fop.  Gard.  iii.  140. 


458     AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  right-hand  cane  is 
two -thirds  of  it  old  wood,  to  be  all  cut  away  at 
the  next  pruning.  The  old  canes  that  bore  a 
heavy  crop  of  fruit  have  been  pruned  away,  all 
but  the  stumps  of  the  right-hand  cane.  Three  or 
more  buds  at  the  end  of  the  cane,  as  the  vine  may 
be  strong  or  weak,  are  to  be  left  to  bear  fruit,  the 
others  to  be  rubbed  off,  except  enough  to  form 
new  canes  near  the  ground,  to  renew  next  year's 
bearing  canes.  *  *  *  The  original  Kelly's 
Island  System  was  one  long  cane  or  arm,  with 
spurs  for  next  year's  canes  at  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  but  it  was  found  objectionable  because  it  is 
always  difficult  to  get  the  fruit -spurs  to  grow 
uniform  upon  long  canes,  the  first  and  the  last 
canes  growing  too  strong  at  the  expense  of  the 
center  canes." 

A  mongrel  mode  of  training  is  reported  in 
Fig.  292.  The  diagram  is  described*  as  "a  well- 
managed  six -year -old  vine  ;  heavier  parts  show 
old  wood ;  light  parts,  this  year's  wood."  It  is 
seen  to  be  a  combination  of  High  Renewal  (re- 
newal cane  at  A),  horizontal  arm  and  fan- 
training. 

THE    DROOPING    SYSTEMS 

In  1845  William  T.  Cornell  planted  a  vine- 
yard in  the  Hudson  River  Valley.  A  neighbor, 

*By  "a  well-known  horticulturist"  in  Pop.  Gartl.  iii.  278. 


HISTORY    OF    KNIFF1N    TRAINING 


459 


William  Kniffin,  was  a  stone  mason  with  a  few 
acres  of  land  to  which  he  devoted  his  attention 
during  the  leisure  seasons  of  his  trade.  Cornell 
induced  Kniffin  to  plant  a  few  grapes.  He 
planted  the  Isabella,  and  succeeding  beyond  his 
expectations,  the  plantation  was  increased  into  a 
respectable  vineyard,  and  Kniffin  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  local  authority  upon  grape  culture. 


292.    A  mixed  mode. 

Those  were  the  pioneer  days  in  commercial  grape 
growing  in  North  America,  and  there  were  no 
undisputed  maxims  of  cultivation  and  training. 
If  any  system  of  close  training  and  pruning  was 
employed,  it  was  probably  the  old  horizontal  arm 
spur  system,  or  something  like  it.  One  day  a 
large  limb  broke  from  an  apple-tree  and  fell  on 
a  grape-vine,  tearing  off  some  of  the  canes  and 
crushing  the  vine  into  a  singular  shape.  The 
vine  was  thought  to  be  ruined,  but  it  was  left 


460    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

until  the  fruit  could  be  gathered.  But  as  the 
fruit  matured,  its  large  size  and  handsome  ap- 
pearance attracted  attention.  It  was  the  best 
fruit  in  the  vineyard!  Mr.  Kniffin  was  an  obser- 
vant man,  and  he  inquired  into  the  cause  of  the 
excellent  fruit.  He  noticed  that  the  vine  had 
been  pruned,  and  that  the  best  canes  stood  out 
horizontally.  From  this  suggestion  he  developed 
the  four -cane  system  of  training  which  now  bears 
his  name.  A  year  or  two  later,  in  1854,  the 
system  had  attracted  the  attention  of  those  of 
his  neighbors  who  cultivated  grapes,  and  there- 
after it  spread  throughout  the  Hudson  Valley, 
where  it  is  to-day,  with  various  modifications, 
the  chief  method  of  grape  training.  Its  merits 
have  become  known  beyond  its  original  valley, 
and  it  is  now  spreading  more  rapidly  than  any 
other  system.  The  ground  upon  which  the  old 
Isabellas  grew  is  now  occupied  by  Concords, 
which  are  as  vigorous  and  productive  as  those 
grown  upon  newer  soils.  William  Kniffin  died 
at  his  home  in  Clintondale,  Ulster  county,  New 
York,  June  13,  1876,  at  fifty -seven  years  of  age. 

THE    TRUE    OR    FOUR -CANE     KNIFFIN    SYSTEM.— 

The  true  Kniffin  system,  very  nearly  as  practiced 
by  its  originator,  is  shown  in  Fig.  293.  A  single 
stem  or  trunk  is  carried  directly  to  the  top  wire, 
and  two  canes  are  taken  out  from  side  spurs  at 
each  wire.  Mr.  Kniffin  believed  in  short  canes, 
and  cut  them  back  to  about  six  buds  on  both 


462    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 


wires.     But  most  growers  now  prefer  to  leave  the 
upper  canes  longer  than  the  lower  ones,  as  seen 

in  illustration.  The 
bearing  shoots  are  al- 
lowed to  hang  at  will, 
so  that  no  summer 
tying  is  necessary ;  this 
is  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  the  various 
Kniffin  systems.  The 
main  trunk  is  tied  to 
each  wire,  and  the 
canes  are  tied  to  the 
wires  in  spring.  This 
system  possesses  the 
great  advantage,  there- 
fore, of  requiring  little 
labor  during  the  busy 
days  of  the  growing 
season  ;  and  the  vines 
are  easily  cultivated, 
and  if  the  rows  are 
nine  or  ten  feet  apart, 
currants  or  other  bush- 
fruits  can  be  grown  be- 
tween. The  system  is 

294.    NO.  293  when  pruned.        especially   adapted     to 

the  strong  varieties  of 

grapes,  particularly  to  those  which  are  most  droop- 
ing.    For  further  comparisons  of    the   merits    of 


KNIFFIN    PRUNING  463 

different   systems  of   training,   the  reader   should 
consult  pages  432  to  434. 

The  pruning  of  the  Kniffin  vine  consists  in 
cutting  off  all  the  wood  except  a  single  cane  from 
each  spur.  Fig.  294  illustrates  the  process.  This 
is  the  same  vine  which  is  shown  with  the  full 
amount  of  wood  on  in  Fig.  293.  The  drooping 
shoots  shown  in  that  illustration  bore  the  grapes 
of  1892  ;  and  now,  in  the  winter  of  1892-3,  they 
are  all  to  be  cut  away,  with  the  horizontal  old 
canes  from  which  they  grew,  except  only  the  four 
canes  which  hang  nearest  the  main  trunk.  Fig. 
294  shows  the  vine  after  it  had  been  pruned. 
It  is  not  obligatory  that  the  canes  which  are  left 
after  the  pruning  should  be  those  nearest  the 
trunk,  for  it  may  happen  that  these  may  be 
weak;  but,  other  things  being  equal,  these  canes 
are  preferable  because  their  selection  keeps  the 
old  spurs  short.  The  careful  grower  will  take 
pains  to  remove  the  weak  shoots  which  start 
from  this  point,  in  order  that  a  strong  cane  may 
be  obtained.  It  is  desirable  that  these  side  spurs 
be  removed  entirely  every  three  or  four  years,  a 
new  cane  being  brought  out  again  from  the  main 
body  or  trunk.  There  is  little  expectation,  how- 
ever, that  there  shall  be  such  a  complete  renewal 
pruning  as  that  practiced  in  the  High  Renewal, 
which  we  discussed  in  the  preceding  pages. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  drooping  canes  in  Fig. 
294   are    shorter    than    they   were    originally,    as 


464    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

shown  in  Fig.  293.  They  have  been  cut  back. 
The  length  at  which  these  canes  shall  be  left  is 
a  moot  point.  Much  depends  on  the  variety, 
the  distance  between  the  wires,  the  strength  of 
the  soil,  and  other  factors.  Nearly  all  growers 
now  agree  that  the  upper  canes  should  be  longer 
than  the  lower  ones,  although  equal  canes  are 
still  used  in  some  places.  In  strong  varieties, 
like  Worden,  each  of  the  upper  canes  may  bear 
ten  buds  and  each  of  the  lower  ones  five.  This 
gives  thirty  buds  to  the  vine.  Some  growers  pre- 
fer to  leave  twelve  buds  above,  and  only  four 
below. 

These  four  pruned  canes  are  generally  allowed 
to  hang  during  winter,  but  are  tied  onto  the  wires 
before  the  buds  swell  in  spring.  They  are 
stretched  out  horizontally  and  secured  to  the 
wire  by  one  or  two  ties  on  each  cane  The 
shoots  which  spring  from  these  horizontal  canes 
stand  upright  or  oblique  at  first,  but  they  soon 
fall  over  with  the  weight  of  foliage  and  fruit.  If 
they  touch  the  ground,  the  ends  may  be  clipped 
with  a  sickle,  corn -cutter  or  scythe,  although 
this  is  not  always  done,  and  is  not  necessary  un- 
less the  canes  interfere  with  cultivation.  There 
is  no  summer  pinching  or  pruning,  although  the 
superfluous  shoots  should  be  broken  out,  as  in 
other  systems.  It  is  imperative,  for  best  results, 
that  the  shoots  do  not  grow  out  horizontally  on 
the  wires.  They  should  be  torn  off  the  wires  once 


KNIFFIN    TRAINING  465 

or  twice    during   the   summer,    so   that   they  will 
hang  free. 

Only  two  wires  are  used  in  the  true  Kniffin 
trellis.  The  end  posts  are  usually  set  in  holes, 
rather  than  driven,  to  render  them  solid,  and  they 
should  always  be  well  braced.  The  intermediate 
posts  are  driven,  and  they  usually  stand  between 
every  alternate  vine,  or  twenty  feet  apart  if  the 
vines  are  ten  feet  apart — which  is  a  common  dis- 
tance for  the  most  vigorous  varieties.  For  the 
strong -growing  varieties,  the  top  wire  is  placed 
from  five  and  one -half  to  six  feet  above  the 
ground.  Five  feet  nine  inches  is  a  popular 
height.  The  posts  will  heave  sufficiently  to  bring 
the  height  to  six  feet,  although  it  is  best  to  "tap" 
the  posts  every  spring  with  a  maul  in  order  to 
drive  them  back  and  make  them  firm.  The  lower 
wire  is  usually  placed  at  three  and  one -half  feet. 
Delawares,  if  trained  Kniffin,  should  not  stand 
above  five  feet  four  inches,  or  at  most  five  feet 
six  inches.  Strong  vines  on  good  soil  are  often 
put  onto  the  trellis  the  second  year,  although  it 
is  a  commoner  practice,  perhaps,  to  stake  them 
the  second  season,  as  already  explained  (page  412), 
and  put  them  on  the  wires  the  third  season.  The 
year  following  the  tying  on  the  trellis,  the  vine 
should  bear  a  partial  crop.  The  vine  is  usually 
carried  directly  to  the  top  wire  the  first  season  of 
training,  although  it  is  the  practice  of  some  grow- 
ers, especially  outside  the  Hudson  Valley,  to  stop 

DD 


466    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

the  trunk  at  the  lower  wire  the  first  year  of 
permanent  training,  and  to  carry  it  to  the  top 
wire  the  following  year. 

Yields  from  good  Kniffin  vines  will  average  fully 
as  high  and  perhaps  higher  than  from  other 
species  of  training.  W.  D.  Barns,  of  Orange 
county,  New  York,  has  had  an  annual  average  of 
twenty -six  pounds  of  Concords  to  the  vine  for 
nine  years,  1,550  vines  being  considered  in  the 
calculation.  While  the  Delaware  is  not  so  well 
suited  to  the  Kniffin  system  as  stronger  varieties, 
it  can  nevertheless  be  trained  in  this  manner  with 
success,  as  the  following  average  yields  obtained 
by  Mr.  Barns  from  200  vines  set  in  1881  will 
show  : 


-1007 

1888 

g 

'   ' 

1889 

9% 

1890 

7 

1891 

16 

1892  .. 

..  13 

MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  FOUR -CANE  KNIFFIN. — 
Various  modifications  of  this  original  four -cane 
Kniffin  are  in  use.  The  Kniffin  idea  is  often 
carelessly  applied  to  a  rack  trellis.  In  such  cases, 
several  canes  were  allowed  to  grow  where  only 
two  should  have  been  left.  Fig.  295  is  a  com- 
mon but  poor  style  of  Kniffin  used  in  some  of 
the  large  new  vineyards  of  western  New  York. 
It  differs  from  the  type  in  the  training  of  the 


MODIFIED    KNIFFINS 


467 


young  wood.  These  shoots,  instead  of  being  al- 
lowed to  hang  at  will,  are  carried  out  horizon- 
tally and  either  tied  to  the  wire  or  twisted  around 
it.  The  advantage  urged  for  this  modification 
is  the  little  injury  done  by  wind,  but,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  practice,  it  affords  less  protection  than  the 
true  drooping  Kniffin,  for  in  the  latter  the  shoots 


295.    A  common  but  poor  type  of  Kniffin. 


from  the  upper  cane  soon  cling  to  the  lower 
wire,  and  the  shoots  from  both  tiers  of  canes 
protect  each  other  below  the  lower  wire.  There 
are  three  serious  disadvantages  to  this  holding 
up  of  the  shoots,  —  it  makes  unnecessary  labor, 
the  canes  are  likely  to  make  wood  or  "bull 
canes"  (see  page  450)  at  the  expense  of  fruit, 
and  the  fruit  is  bunched  together  on  the  vines. 
The  true  and  successful  Kniffin  does  not  allow 


468    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

the   growing   shoots  to   run   out  on  the  wires  in 
this  way  (see  page  464). 

Another  common  modification  of  the  four -cane 
Kniffin  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  296,  in  which  a 
crotch  or  Y  is  made  in  the  trunk.  This  crotch 
is  used  in  the  belief  that  the  necessary  sap  sup- 


296.     The  Y-trunk  Kniffin. 

ply  is  thereby  more  readily  deflected  into  the 
lower  arms  than  by  the  .system  of  side  spurring 
on  a  straight  or  continuous  trunk.  This  is  prob- 
ably a  fallacy,  and  may  have  arisen  from  the  at- 
tempt to  grow  as  heavy  canes  on  the  lower  wires 
as  on  the  upper  one.  Nevertheless,  this  modifi- 
cation is  in  common  use  in  western  New  York 
and  elsewhere. 

This  Y-trunk  Kniffin ,  as  understood  in  western 
New  York,  is  explained  in  its  various  stages  in 


MODIFIED    KNIFFINS  469 

Figs.  297  to  303,*  the  cross -marks  indicating 
where  cuts  are  to  be  made. 

If  it  is  desired  to  leave  an  equal  number  of 
buds  on  both  wires,  the  Double  Kniffin  will  prob- 
ably be  found  most  satisfactory.  Two  distinct 
trunks  are  brought  from  the  root,  each  supply- 
ing a  single  wire  only  (Fig.  304).  The  trunks 
are  often  tied  together  to  hold  them  in  place. 
This  system,  under  the  name  of  Improved  Kniffin, 
is  just  coming  into  notice  in  restricted  portions 
of  the  Hudson  Valley. 

THE  TWO -CANE  KNIFFIN,  OR  UMBRELLA  SYS- 
TEM.— Inasmuch  as  the  greater  part  of  the  fruit 
in  the  Four -Cane  Kniffin  is  borne  on  the  upper 
wire,  the  question  arises  if  it  would  not  be  better 
to  dispense  with  the  lower  canes  and  cut  the  upper 
ones  longer.  This  is  now  done  to  a  considerable 
extent,  especially  in  the  Hudson  Valley.  Fig.  305 
explains  the  operation.  This  shows  a  pruned 
vine.  The  trunk  is  tied  to  the  lower  wire  to 
steady  it,  and  two  canes,  each  bearing  from  nine 
to  fifteen  buds,  are  left  on  the  upper  wire. 
These  canes  are  tied  to  the  upper  wire,  and  they 
are  then  bent  down,  hoop -like,  to  the  lower  wire, 
where  the  ends  are  tied.  In  some  instances,  the 
lower  wire  is  dispensed  with,  but  this  is  not  ad- 
visable. This  wire  holds  the  vine  in  place  against 
the  winds,  and  prevents  the  too  violent  whipping 
of  the  hanging  shoots.  During  the  growing  sea- 

*H.  P.  Van  Dusen,  in  Pop.  Gard.  iii.  69. 


472    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

son,  renewal  canes  are  taken  from  the  spurs  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  in  the  ordinary  Knif- 
fin.  This  species  of  training  reduces  the  amount 
of  leaf -surf  ace  to  a  minimum,  and  every  precau- 
tion must  be  taken  to  insure  a  healthy  leaf- 
growth.  This  system  of  training  will  probably 
not  allow  of  the  successful  girdling  of  the  vine 
for  the  purpose  of  hastening  the  maturity  and 
augmenting  the  size  of  the  fruit  (page  284). 
Yet  heavy  crops  can  be  obtained  from  it,  if 
liberal  fertilizing  and  good  cultivation  are  em- 
ployed, and  the  fruit  is  nearly  always  first -class. 
A  certain  Concord  vine  trained  in  this  manner 
produced  in  1892  eighty  clusters  of  first  quality 
grapes,  weighing  forty  pounds. 

Another  type  of  Umbrella  training  has  five 
main  canes  instead  of  two.  Except  in  very 
strong  vines,  this  top  is  too  heavy,  and  it  is 
probably  never  so  good  as  the  other  (Fig.  305), 
if  the  highest  results  are  desired;  but  for  the 
grower  who  does  not  practice  high  cultivation 
it  is  probably  a  safer  system  than  the  other. 

THE  LOW,  OR  ONE -WIRE  KNIFFIN.— A  modifica- 
tion of  this  Umbrella  system  is  sometimes  used, 
in  which  the  trellis  is  only  three  or  four  feet 
high  and  comprises  but  a  single  wire.  A  cane  of 
ten  or  a  dozen  buds  is  tied  out  in  each  direction, 
and  the  shoots  are  allowed  to  hang  in  essentially 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  True  or  High  Kniffin 
system.  The  advantages  urged  for  this  system 


MODIFIED    KNIFFINS 


473 


are  the  protection  of  the  grapes  from  wind,  the 
large  size  of  the  fruit  due  to  the  small  amount 
of  bearing  wood,  the  ease  of  laying  down  the 
vines,  the  readiness  with  which  the  top  can  be 


306.    Eight-cane  Kniffin.     (Diagram.) 

renewed  from  the  root  as  occasion  demands,  and 
the  cheapness  of  the  trellis. 

THE  six -CANE  KNIFFIN.— There  are  many  old 
vineyards  in  eastern  New  York  which  are  trained 
on  a  six -cane  or  three -wire  system.  The  gen- 
eral pruning  and  management  of  these  vines  do 
not  differ  from  that  of  the  common  Kniffin.  Very 
strong  varieties,  which  can  carry  an  abundance  of 
wood,  may  be  profitable  on  this  style  of  train- 
ing, but  it  cannot  be  recommended.  A  Concord 
vineyard  over  thirty  years  old,  comprising  295 
vines,  trained  in  this  fashion,  is  still  thrifty  and 


474    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

productive.  Twice  it  has  produced  crops  of  six 
tons. 

EIGHT -CANE  KNIFFIN.  —  Eight  and  even  ten 
canes  are  sometimes  left  on  a  single  trunk, 
and  are  trained  out  horizontally  or  somewhat 
obliquely,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram (Fig.  306).  Unless  these  canes  are  cut 
back  to  four  or  five  buds  each,  the  vine  carries 
too  much  wood  and  fruit.  This  system  allows 
of  close  planting,  but  the  trellis  is  too  expensive. 
The  trunk  is  soon  overgrown  with  spurs, 
and  it  is  likely  to  become  prematurely  weak. 
This  style  is  very  rarely  used. 

CAYWOOD,  OVERHEAD,  OR  ARBOR  KNIFFIN. — A 
curious  modification  of  the  Kniffin  is  employed 
somewhat  on  the  Hudson,  particularly  by  Sands 
Haviland,  at  Marlboro'.  The  vines  are  carried 
up  on  a  kind  of  overhead  arbor,  as  shown  in 
Figs.  307,  308.  The  trellis  is  six  feet  above 
the  ground,  and  is  composed  of  three  horizontal 
wires  lying  in  the  same  plane.  The  central  wire 
runs  from  post  to  post,  and  one  upon  either 
side  is  attached  to  the  end  of  a  three-foot  cross- 
bar, as  represented  in  Fig.  307.  The  rows  are 
nine  feet  apart,  and  the  vines  and  posts  twelve 
feet  apart  in  the  row.  Contiguous  rows  are 
braced  by  a  connecting-pole,  as  in  Fig.  308. 
The  trunk  of  the  vine  ends  in  a  T-shaped  head. 
From  this  T-head,  five  canes  are  carried  out 
from  spurs.  It  was  formerly  the  practice  to 


CAYWOOD    TRAINING 


475 


carry  out  six  canes,  one  in  each  direction  upon 
each  wire,  but  this  was  found  to  supply  too  much 
wood.  Now  two  canes  are  carried  in  one  direc- 


307.     Overhead  Kniffin. 


tion  and  three  in  the  other;  and  the  positions 
of  these  sets  are  alternated  each  year,  if  possible. 
The  canes  which  are  left  after  the  winter  prun- 
ing are  tied  along  the  wires  in  spring,  as  in  the 


476    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

Kniffin,  and  the  shoots  hang  over  the  wires.  The 
chief  advantage  of  this  training  is  that  it  allows 
of  the  growing  of  bush -fruits  between  the  rows, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  308.  It  is  also  said  that  the 
clusters  hang  so  free  that  the  bloom  is  not  in- 
jured by  the  twigs  or  leaves,  and  the  fruit  is 
protected  from  sun  and  frost.  Every  post  must 


308.     Overhead  Kniffin. 

be   large   and   firmly   set,   however,   adding  much 
to  the  cost  of  the  trellis. 

Several  styles  similar  to  this  are  in  use,  one 
of  the  best  being  the  Crittenden  system,  of 
Michigan.  In  this  system  the  trellis  is  low,  not 
exceeding  four  or  five  feet,  and  the  vines  cover 
a  flat -topped  platform  two  or  three  feet  wide. 
By  midsummer  the  drooping  shoots  have  reached 
the  ground,  making  a  continuous  drapery  of 
foliage,  as  seen  in  Fig.  309. 


CROSS -WIRE    TRAINING  477 

THE  CROSS -WIRE  SYSTEM. — Another  high  Knif- 
fin  training,  and  which  is  also  confined  to  the 
vicinity  of  Marlboro',  New  York,  is  the  Cross- 
Wire,  represented  in  Fig.  310.  Small  posts  are 
set  eight  feet  apart  each  way?  and  a  single  wire 
runs  from  the  top  of  post  to  post — six  and  one- 
half  feet  from  the  ground  —  in  each  direction, 
forming  a  check -row  system  of  overhead  wires. 
The  grape-vine  is  set  at  the  foot  of  the  stake, 


309.     Crittenden  training  in  the  original  vineyard. 
St.  Joseph,  Mich. 

to  which  the  trunk  is  tied  for  support.  Four 
canes  are  taken  from  spurs  on  the  head  of  the 
trunk,  one  for  each  of  the  radiating  wires. 
These  canes  are  cut  to  three  and  one -half  or 
four  feet  in  length,  and  the  bearing  shoots 
droop  as  they  grow.  Fig.  310  shows  this  train- 
ing as  it  appears  some  time  after  the  leaves 
start  in  spring.  Later  in  the  season  the  whole 
vineyard  becomes  a  great  arbor,  and  a  person 
standing  at  a  distance  sees  an  almost  impene- 
trable mass  of  herbage.  This  system  appears  to 


478     AMERICAN    .GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

have  little  merit,  aiid  will  always  remain  local 
in  application.  It  possesses  the  advantage  of 
economy  in  construction  of  the  trellis,  for  very 
slender  posts  are  used,  even  at  the  ends  of  the 
rows.  The  end  posts  are  either  braced  by  a 
pole,  or  anchored  by  a  wire  taken  from  the  top 


310.    Cross-wire  training. 

and  secured  to  a  stake  or  stone  eight  or  ten  feet 
beyond,  outside  the  vineyard. 

RENEWAL  KNIFFIN.— It  is  an  easy  matter  to 
adapt  the  Kniffin  principle  of  free  hanging 
shoots  to  a  true  renewal  method  of  pruning. 
There  are  a  few  modifications  in  use  in  which 
the  wood  is  annually  renewed  to  near  the  ground. 
The  trellises  comprise  either  two  or  three  wires, 
and  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the 


RENEWAL    KNIFFIN 


479 


upright  systems,  as  the  High  Renewal.  At  the 
annual  pruning  only  one  cane  is  left.  This  com- 
prises twelve  or  fifteen  buds,  and  is  tied  up 
diagonally  across  the  trellis,  the  point  or  end  of 
the  cane  usually  being  bent  downward  somewhat, 
in  order  to  check  the  strong  growth  from  the 
uppermost  parts.  The  shoots 
hang  from  this  cane,  and 
they  may  be  pinched  back 
when  they  reach  the  ground. 
In  the  meantime,  a  strong 
shoot  is  taken  out  from  the 
opposite  side  of  the  head— 
which  usually  stands  a  foot 
or  less  from  the  ground — to 
make  the  bearing  wood  of 
the  next  year;  and  this  new 
cane  will  be  tied  in  an  op- 
posite direction  on  the  trellis 
from  the  present  bearing 
cane,  and  the  next  renewal 
shoot  will  be  taken  from 
the  other  side  of  the  hea'd, 
or  the  side  from  which  the 
present  bearing  wood  sprung; 
so  that  the  bearing  top  of 

the  vine  is  alternated  in  either  direction  upon  the 
trellis.  This  system,  and  similar  ones,  allows  of 
laying  down  the  vines  easily  in  winter,  and  in- 
sures excellent  fruit  because  the  amount  of  bear- 


Munson  training. 
End  view. 


480     AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

ing  wood  is  small;  but  the  crop  produced  is 
not  large  enough  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  most 
grape  growers. 

THE  MUNSON  SYSTEM.— An  unique  system  of 
training,  upon  the  Kniffin  principle,  has  been  de- 
vised by  T.  V.  Munson,  of  Denison,  Texas,  a 
well-known  authority  upon  grapes.*  Two  posts 
are  set  in  the  same  hole,  their  tops  diverging. 
A  wire  'is  stretched  along  the  top  of  these  posts, 
and  a  third  one  is  hung  between  them  .on  cross- 
wires.  The  trunk  of  the  vine,  or  its  head,  is 
secured  to  this  middle  lower  wire  and  the  shoots 
lop  over  the  side  wires.  The  growth,  therefore, 
makes  a  V-shaped  or  trough -like  mass  of  herb- 
age. Fig.  311  is  an  end  view  of  this  trellis, 
showing  the  short  wire  connecting  the  posts,  and 
which  also  holds  the  middle  trellis -wire  at  the 
point  of  the  V.  Fig.  312  is  a  side  view  of  the 
trellis.  The  bearing  canes,  two  or  four  in  num- 
ber, which  are  left  after  the  annual  pruning,  are 
tied  along  this  middle  wire.  The  main  trunk 
forks  just  under  the  middle  wire,  as  seen  at  the 
left  in  Fig.  312.  A  head  is  formed  at  this  place 
not  unlike  that  which  characterizes  the  High 
Renewal,  for  this  system  also  employs  renewal 
pruning.  The  trellis  stands  six  feet  high.  The 
shoots  stand  upright  at  first,  but  soon  fall  down 
and  are  supported  by  the  side  wires.  The  fol- 

*Mr.  Munson  described  and  illustrated  this  mode  of  training  in 
"American  Garden,"  xiii.  333  (1892). 


482    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

lowing    account    of    this    system    of    training   is 
written  for  this  occasion  by  Mr.  Munson:* 

"After  the  vines  have  flowered,  the  bearing  laterals  have 
their  tips  pinched  off,  and  that  is  all  the  summer  pruning 
the  vine  gets,  except  to  rub  off  all  eyes  that  start  on  the 
body  below  the  crotch.  Two  to  four  shoots,  according  to 
strength  of  vine,  are  started  from  the  forks  or  crotch,  and 
allowed  to  bear  no  fruit,  but  are  trained  along  over  the 
lower  central  wire  for  renewal  canes.  When  pruning  time 
arrives,  the  entire  bearing  cane  of  the  present  year,  with 
all  its  laterals,  is  cut  away  at  a  point  near  where  the 
young  renewal  shoots  have  started,  and  these  shoots  are 
shortened  back,  according  to  strength  of  vine  ;  some,  such 
as  Herbemont,  being  able  at  four  years  to  fill  four  shoots 
six  or  eight  feet  long  with  fine  fruit,  while  Delaware  could 
not  well  carry  over  three  or  four  feet  each  way  of  one 
shoot  only.  The  different  varieties  are  set  at  various  dis- 
tances apart,  according  as  they  are  strong  or  weak  growers. 

"  Thus  the  trellis  and  system  of  pruning  are  reduced  to 
the  simplest  form.  A  few  cuts  to  each  vine  cover  all  the 
pruning,  and  a  few  ties  complete  the  task.  A  novice  can 
soon  learn  to  do  the  work  well.  The  trunk  or  main  stem  is 
secured  to  the  middle  lower  wire,  along  which  all  bearing 
canes  are  tied  after  pruning,  and  from  which  the  young 
laterals  which  produce  the  crop  are  to  spring.  These  lat- 
erals strike  the  two  outer  wires,  soon  clinging  to  them 
with  their  tendrils,  and  are  safe  from  destruction,  while 
the  fruit  is  thrown  in  the  best  possible  position  for  spray- 
ing and  gathering,  and  is  still  shaded  with  the  canopy  of 
leaves.  I  have  now  used  this  trellis  five  years  upon  ten 
acres  of  mixed  vines,  and  I  am  more  pleased  with  it 
every  year. 

"^The  following  advantages  are  secured  by  this  system : 

"1.    The  natural  habit  of  the  vine  is  maintained,  which 

*American  Grape  Training,  80. 


MUNSON    TRAINING  483 

is  a  canopy  to  shade  the  roots  and  body  of  vine  and  the 
fruit,  without  smothering. 

"2.  New  wood,  formed  by  sap  which  has  never  passed 
through  bearing  wood,  is  secured  for  the  next  crop  —  a 
very  important  matter. 

"3.  Simplicity  and  convenience  of  trellis,  allowing  free 
passage  in  any  direction  through  the  vineyard  ;  circulation 
of  air  without  danger  of  breaking  tender  shoots  ;  ease  of 
pruning,  spraying,  cultivating,  harvesting. 

"4.  Perfect  control  in  pruning  of  amount  of  crop  to 
suit  capacity  of  vine. 

"5.  Long  canes  for  bearing,  which  agrees  exactly  with 
the  nature  of  nearly  all  our  American  species  far  better 
than  short  spurs. 

"6.  Ease  of  laying  down  in  winter.  The  vine  being 
pruned  and  not  tied,  standing  away  from  posts,  can  be 
bent  down  to  one  side  between  the  rows,  and  earth  thrown 
upon  it,  and  can  be  quickly  raised  and  tied  in  position. 

"7.  Cheapness  of  construction  and  ease  of  removing 
trellis  material  and  using  it  again. 

"8.    Durability  of  both  trellis  and  vineyard." 

The  Munson  system  of  training  has  found 
many  friends.  Waugh  writes  of  it  as  follows 
from  experience  at  the  Oklahoma  Experiment 
Station:* 

"It  may  be  well  to  explain,  for  those  not  intimate  with 
this  form  of  trellis,  the  construction  used  and  advocated 
by  Mr.  T.  V.  Munson.  According  to  this  method,  the  posts 
are  made  six  feet  high.  At  the  top  runs  a  cross-piece  two 
feet  long,  at  each  end  of  which  is  fastened  one  of  the 
wires  of  the  trellis.  Mr.  Munson  originally  used  two  posts 
set  in  a  V- shape,  with  the  tops  two  feet  apart.  The  result 


'Garden  and  Forest,  May  8,  1895,  185. 


484    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

is  the  same  either  way.  Eight  inches  lower  than  the  two 
side  wires  there  is  a  third  wire  fastened  to  the  posts. 
This  brings  the  three  wires  into  a  very  broad  V  shape. 
There  are  no  other  wires  on  the  trellis. 

"The  system  of  pruning,  which  forms  a  necessary  part 
of  the  scheme,  provides  that  one  or  two  stems  be  brought 
up  to  the  lower  or  middle  wire,  and  that  from  these  stems 
canes  'shall  be  run  each  way  along  this  wire.  From  these 
canes  the  bearing  shoots  come  at  right  angles,  and  natur- 
ally fall  out  over  the  top  wires.  Renewals  are  most  easily 
made  by  spurring  at  the  point  on  the  lower  wire  where 
the  canes  are  given  off  from  the  main  stem,  though  it  is 
often  a  very  easy  matter  to  renew  quite  from  the  ground. 

"This  system  has  been  in  use  at  the  Oklahoma  Experi- 
ment Station  from  the  first,  though  that  is  not  very  long, 
and  has  given  abundant  satisfaction  in  most  particulars. 
At  the  first  glance,  those  who  are  familiar  with  our  severe 
winds,  but  not  with  the  working  of  this  trellis,  are  much 
inclined  to  fear  great  damage  from  the  whipping  of  the 
shoots,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  serious  difficulty  is 
nearly  overcome  by  the  Munson  trellis.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  vexing  problems  in  the  ordinary  horizontal -arm  train- 
ing, but  the  increased  height  of  the  trellis  does  not  in- 
crease the  trouble.  On  the  other  hand,  the  peculiar  position 
occupied  by  the  growing  wood  gives  it  almost  complete  im- 
munity. The  green  shoot  is  supported  in  two  places  near 
its  base,  while  most  of  its  length  hangs  free.  Though  it 
may  swing  in  the  wind,  there  is  nothing  against  which  it 
may  strike,  and  so  the  damage  is  avoided. 

"Mr.  Munson  sets  forth  his  ideas  of  the  advantages  of 
this  system  in  Professor  Bailey's  r  American  Grape  Train- 
ing/ page  81.  However,  in  our  experience  here,  his  sum- 
mary is  unsatisfactory.  Some  of  the  advantages  which  he 
claims  do  not  seem  to  be  peculiar  to  this  system  of  train- 
ing. Others  are  of  slight  importance.  Those  which  are 
important  ought  to  be  more  emphasized.  In  our  experience 


MUNSON    SYSTEM  485 

the  chief  advantages  of  the  system  are  (1)  that  it  greatly 
reduces  the  damage  from  the  wind;  (2)  that  it  reduces 
damage  by  heat  reflection  from  the  soil;  (3)  that  it  saves 
summer  tying.  The  first  of  these  advantages  has  already 
been  explained.  Eegarding  the  second,  it  should  be  said 
that  in  this  country,  wherever  bunches  of  fruit  hang  near 
the  ground  they  are  usually  more  or  less  dried  out  by  the 
excessive  reflection  of  heat  from  the  soil  during  hot  sum- 
mer days.  The  loss  amounts  to  a  great  deal.  A  conser- 
vative estimate  placed  this  loss  at  from  ten  to  sixty  per 
cent  through  this  country  last  season,  and  in  some  ex- 
ceptional cases  the  crop  was  quite  destroyed.  With  the 
fruit  hanging  five  or  six  feet  from  the  ground,  and  over- 
shadowed by  a  canopy  of  foliage  at  least  two  feet  wide, 
this  evil  is  evidently  much  mitigated.  The  young  shoots 
do  not  need  to  be  tied  at  all,  but  are  left  to  swing  freely 
from  the  support  which  is  given  at  their  bases.  In  most 
other  systems  summer  tying  is  a  considerable  and  expen- 
sive item.  Some  summer  pruning  usually  has  to  be  done, 
but  this  is  much  facilitated  and  probably  reduced  in  abso- 
lute quantity  by  the  Munson  training. 

"Certain  weak-growing  varieties,  like  the  well-known 
Delaware,  do  not  find  this  trellis  adapted  to  their  needs. 
Many  other  circumstances  may  decide  against  its  use ;  but 
it  is  being  widely  adopted  through  this  country,  and  there 
are  many  favorable  reports  from  it  in  other  states." 

MODIFIED  MUNSON. — "This  system,  which  might 
better  be  termed  the  'Alternate -Renewal'  Mun- 
son, presents  two  advantages  which  the  True 
Munson  does  not  possess,  and  to  my  mind  is 
preferable.  It  permits  the  bearing  wood  to  be 
alternated  from  one  side  of  the  vine  to  the  other, 
and  is  cheaper  by  one  wire. 


486     AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

"No  middle  wire  is  used,  and  a  slat  is  tacked 
across  the  V  in  place  of  the  slack  wire.  A  fork 
is  formed  below  the  wire  in  Y- shape.  From  this 
fork  a  cane  is  trained  to  the  right  on  one  wire, 
and  to  the  left  on  the  other  wire.  A  shoot  on 
each  cane,  taken  from  a  point  near  the  wire,  is 
trained  in  the  opposite  direction  from,  but  on  the 
same  wire  with,  the  cane,  with  which  to  renew  the 
next  season,  when  the  bearing  wood  will  be  pruned 
to  a  spur,  which  in  its  turn  will  form  a  renewal 
shoot,  and  so  on,  alternately,  the  bearing  canes 
extending  always  in  opposite  directions  and  on 
different  wires,  and  alternating  each  year.  The 
position  of  the  vine  the  next  season  will  simply 
be  shifted  or  reversed. 

"Sometimes  instead  of  six  feet,  the  trellis  is 
made  only  four  feet  high.  This  height  appears 
to  have  done  just  as  well  as  the  other  at  the 
Georgia  Station.  Here,  the  V  supports  have  been 
made  of  one -by -three  slats.  When  the  sharpened 
ends  are  dipped  in  coal  tar,  or  even  white  lead, 
driven  in  the  ground  so  that  they  will  cross  each 
other  just  above  the  surface  and  tacked  with  two 
tenpenny  nails,  a  firm,  durable  and  sightly  sup- 
port is  the  result."* 

MI  SC  ELL  A  NEO  US   S  TS  TEMS 

HORIZONTAL  TRAINING. — There  are  very  few 
types  of  horizontal -shoot  training  now  in  use. 

*Hugh  N.  Starnes,  Bull.  28,  Ga.  Exp.  Sta.  270. 


HORIZONTAL    MODES  487 

One  of  the  best  may  be  described.  Two  wires 
run  from  post  to  post,  as  in  the  ordinary  trellis, 
one  about  two  and  one -half  feet  above  the  ground 
and  the  other  five  and  one -half  feet  high.  The 
posts  are  set  at  the  ordinary  distance  of  sixteen 
or  eighteen  feet  apart.  The  vines  are  set  six  or 
eight  feet  apart,  if  Delawares  or  other  weak 
growers.  A  strong  stake  is  driven  in  the  ground 
just  behind  each  vine,  standing  as  high  as  the 
top  of  the  trellis.  The  permanent  trunk  or 
head  of  the  vine  stands  about  a  foot  high.  The 
vine  is  renewed  back  to  the  top  of  this  trunk 
every  year.  One  cane  is  left  at  each  pruning, 
which,  when  tied  up  to  the  stake,  is  as  high  as 
the  trellis.  From  this  perpendicular  cane,  the 
bearing  shoots  are  carried  out  horizontally. 
About  six  of  these  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow 
upon  either  side  of  the  cane.  As  the  shoots 
grow,  they  are  tied  to  perpendicular  slats  which 
are  fastened  on  the  wires.  These  slats  do  not 
touch  the  ground.  Two  slats  are  provided  upon 
either  side,  making  four  to  a  vine.  They  stand 
a  foot  or  fifteen  inches  apart.  The  clusters  hang 
free  from  the  horizontal  shoots.  If  the  shoots 
grow  too  long,  they  are  pinched  in  when  they 
have  passed  the  second  slat.  While  these  shoots 
are  covering  the  trellis,  another  shoot  is  taken 
out  from  the  head  or  trunk  of  the  vine,  and 
without  being  allowed  to  fruit,  is  tied  up  along 
the  central  stake.  This  shoot  is  to  form  the  top 


488     AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

next  year,  for  all  the  present  vine  is  to  be  en- 
tirely cut  away  at  the  winter's  pruning.  So  the 
vine  starts  every  spring  with  but  a  single  cane. 

Excellent  results  are  obtained  from  the  slender- 
growing  varieties  by  this  method  of  training,  but 
it  is  too  expensive  in  trellis  and  in  the  labor  of 
tying  to  make  it  generally  practicable.  Delaware, 
however,  thrives  remarkably  well  when  trained  in 
this  fashion. 

POST  TRAINING. — There  are  various  methods  of 
training  to  posts,  all  of  which  possess  two  ad- 
vantages— the  saving  of  the  expense  of  trellis  and 
allowing  of  cultivation  both  ways.  But  they  also 
have  grave  disadvantages,  especially  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  head  of  foliage,  which  harbors  rot 
and  mildew  and  prevents  successful  spraying, 
and  hinders  the  fruit  from  coloring  and  ripening 
well.  These  faults  are  so  serious  that  post 
training  is  now  little  used  for  the  American 
grapes.  The  saving  in  cost  of  trellis  is  not 
great,  for  more  posts  are  required  to  the  acre 
than  in  the  trellis  systems,  and  they  do  not  en- 
dure long  when  standing  alone  with  the  whole 
weight  of  the  vines  thrown  upon  them. 

There  are  various  methods  of  pruning  for  the 
stake  training,  but  nearly  all  of  them  agree  in 
pruning  to  side  spurs  on  a  permanent  upright 
arm  which  stands  the  full  height  of  the  vine. 
There  may  be  one  or  two  sets  of  these  spurs. 
We  might  suppose  the  Kniffin  vine,  shown  in 


POST    TRAINING  489 

Fig.  294,  to  be  tied  to  a  post  instead  of  stretched 
on  a  trellis  ;  in  that  event,  the  four  canes  would 
hang  at  will,  or  they  might  be  wrapped  about 
the  post,  the  shoots  hanging  out  unsupported  in 
all  directions.  The  post  systems  are  essentially 
Kniffin  in  principle,  for  the  shoots  hang  free. 
In  low  styles  of  post  training,  the  permanent 
head  of  the  vine  may  be  only  three  or  four  feet 
high.  This  head  will  have  a  ring  of  spurs  on  it, 
and  at  the  annual  pruning  three  to  five  canes 
are  left  with  from  six  to  ten  buds  each. 

The  main  trunk  is  usually  tied  permanently  to 
the  post.  The  canes  left  after  pruning  are  va- 
riously disposed.  Sometimes  they  are  bent  up- 
wards and  tied  to  the  post  above  the  head  of  the 
vine,  but  they  are  oftenest  either  wound  loosely 
about  the  post,  or  are  allowed  to  hang  loose. 
Two  trunks  are  frequently  used  to  each  post, 
both  coming  from  the  ground  from  a  common 
root.  These  are  wound  about  the  post  in  oppo- 
site directions,  one  outside  the  other,  and  if  the 
outside  one  is  secured  at  the  top  by  a  small  nail 
driven  through  it,  or  by  a  cord,  no  other  tying 
will  be  necessary.  Sometimes  two  or  three  posts 
are  set  at  distances  of  one  foot  or  more  apart, 
and  the  vines  are  wrapped  about  them,  but  this 
only  augments  the  size  and  depth  of  the  mass 
of  foliage.  Now  and  then  one  sees  a  careful 
post  training,  in  which  but  little  wood  is  left 
and  vigorous  breaking  out  of  shoots  practiced, 


490    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

which  gives  excellent  results  ;  but  on  the  whole, 
post  training  cannot  be  recommended.  The  Euro- 
pean post  and  stake  systems,  or  modifications  of 
them,  are  yet  occasionally  recommended  for  Ameri- 
can vines,  but  under  general  conditions,  especially 
in  commercial  grape  growing,  they  rarely  succeed 
long.  One  of  the  latest  recommendations  of  any 
of  these  types  is  that  of  the  single  pole  system  of 
the  Upper  Rhine  Valley  by  A.  F.  Hofer,  of  Iowa, 
in  a  little  treatise  published  in  1878. 

ARBORS. — Arbors  and  bowers  are  usually 
formed  with  little  reference  to  pruning  and  train- 
ing. The  first  object  is  to  secure  shade  and  se- 
clusion, and  these  are  conditions  which  may 
seriously  interfere  with  _  the  production  of  fine 
grapes.  As  a  rule,  too  much  wood  must  be  al- 
lowed to  grow,  and  the  soil  about  arbors  is 
rarely  ever  cultivated.  Still,  fair  results  in  fruit 
can  be  obtained  if  the  operator  makes  a  diligent 
use  of  the  pruning  shears.  It  is  usually  best  to 
carry  one  main  or  permanent  trunk  up  to  the 
top  or  center  of  the  arbor.  Along  this  trunk  at 
intervals  of  two  feet  or  less,  spurs  may  be  left  to 
which  the  wood  is  renewed  each  year.  If  the 
vines  stand  six  feet  apart  about  the  arbor — which 
is  a  satisfactory  distance — one  cane  three  feet 
long  may  be  left  on  each  spur  when  the  pruning 
is  done.  The  shoots  which  spring  from  these 
canes  will  soon  cover  up  the  intermediate  spaces. 
At  the  close  of  the  season,  this,  entire  cane,  with 


REMODELING    OLD    VINES  491 

its  laterals,  is  cut  away  at  the  spur,  and  another 
three -foot  cane — which  grew  during  the  season — 
is  left  in  its  place.  This  pruning  is  essentially 
that  of  the  Kniffin  vine  in  Fig.  294.  Imagine 
this  vine,  with  as  many  joints  or  tiers  as  neces- 
sary, laid  upon  the  arbor.  The  canes  are  tied 
out  horizontally  to  the  slats  instead  of  being  tied 
on  wires.  This  same  system — running  up  a  long 
trunk  and  cutting -in  to  side  spurs — will  apply 
equally  well  to  tall  walls  and  fences  which  it  is 
desired  to  cover.  Undoubtedly  a  better  plan,  so 
far  as  yield  and  quality  of  fruit  is  concerned,  is 
to  renew  back  nearly  to  the  root,  bringing  up  a 
strong  new  cane,  or  perhaps  two  or  three  every 
year,  and  cutting  the  old  ones  off ;  but  as  the 
vines  are  desired  for  shade,  one  does  not  care  to 
wait  until  midsummer  for  the  vines  to  reach  and 
cover  the  top  of  the  arbor. 

REMODELING  OLD  VINES. — Old  and  neglected 
tops  can  rarely  be  remodeled  to  advantage.  If 
the  vine  is  still  vigorous,  it  will  probably  pay  to 
grow  an  entirely  new  top  by  taking  out  a  cane 
from  the  root.  If  the  old  top  is  cut  back  severely 
for  a  year  or  two,  this  new  cane  will  make  a  vig- 
orous growth,  and  it  can  be  treated  essentially  like 
a  new  or  young  vine.  If  it  is  very  strong  and 
ripens  up  well,  it  can  be  left  long  enough  the  first 
fall  to  make  the  permanent  trunk  ;  but  if  it  is 
rather  weak  and  soft,  it  should  be  cut  back  in  the 
fall  or  winter  to  two  or  three  buds,  from  one  of 


492    AMERICAN    GRAPE    TRAINING,    CONCLUDED 

which  the  permanent  trunk  is  to  be  grown  the 
second  season.  Thereafter,  the  instructions  which 
are  given  in  the  preceding  pages  for  the  various 
systems  will  apply  to  the  new  vine.  The  old 
trunk  should  be  cut  away  as  soon  as  the  new  one 
is  permanently  tied  to  the  wires, — that  is,  at  the 
close  of  either  the  first  or  second  season  of  the 
new  trunk.  Care  must  be  exercised  to  rub  off  all 
sprouts  which  spring  from  the  old  root  or  stump. 
If  this  stump  can  be  cut  back  into  the  ground  and 
covered  with  earth,  better  results  may  be  expected. 
Old  vines  treated  in  this  manner  often  make  good 
plants,  but  if  the  vines  are  weak  and  the  soil  is 
poor,  the  trouble  will  scarcely  pay  for  itself. 

These  old  vines  can  be  remodeled  easily  by 
means  of  grafting.  Cut  off  the  trunk  five  or  six 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  leaving  an 
inch  or  two  of  straight  wood  above  the  roots. 
Into  this  stub  insert  two  cions  exactly  as  for  cleft- 
grafting  the  apple.  Cions  of  two  or  three  buds, 
of  firm  wood  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil,  should  be 
inserted.  The  top  bud  should  stand  above  the 
ground.  The  cleft  will  need  no  tying  or  wax, 
although  it  is  well  to  place  a  bit  of  waxed  cloth  or 
other  material  over  the  wound  to  keep  the  soil  out 
of  it.  Fill  the  earth  tightly  about  it.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  in  any  pruning  which  is  done  this 
first  year,  or  the  cions  may  be  loosened.  If  the 
young  shoots  are  tied  to  a  stake  there  will  be  less 
danger  from  wind  and  careless  workmen.  In  the 


GRAFTING    VINES  493 

vine  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  313),  no  prun- 
ing or  rubbing  out  was  done,  but  the  vine  would 
have  been  in  better  shape  for  training  if  only 
one  or  two  shoots  had  been  allowed  to  grow. 


313.    A  good  yearling  graft. 

If  it  is  desired,  however,  to  keep  the  old  top,  it 
will  be  best  to  cut  back  the  annual  growth  heavily 
at  the  winter  pruning.  The  amount  of  wood 
which  shall  be  left  must  be  determined  by  the 
vigor  of  the  plant  and  the  variety,  but  three  or 
four  canes  of  six  to  ten  buds  each  may  be  left  at 
suitable  places.  During  the  next  season  a  strong 
shoot  from  the  base  of  each  cane  may  be  allowed 
to  grow,  which  shall  form  the  wood  of  the  follow- 
ing season,  while  all  the  present  cane  is  cut  away 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  so  that  the  bearing -wood 
is  renewed  each  year,  as  in  the  regular  systems 
of  training.  Much  skill  and  experience  are  often 
required  to  properly  rejuvenate  an  old  vine;  and  in 
very  many  cases  the  vine  is  not  worth  the  trouble. 


CHAPTER  IX 


VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

The  Old  World  grape,  Vitis  vinifera,  is  a  dis- 
tinct species  or  type  from  the  American  grapes, 
and  the  methods  of  training  and  pruning  which 
apply  to  the  one  may  not  apply  to  the  other. 
We  have  already  seen  (Chapter  VII.)  that  early 
American  grape  training  was  a  transplantation 
of  European  methods.  The  Vinifera  is  the  grape 
which  is  grown  in  the  Pacific  region  for  wine 
and  raisins,  and  it  is  the  grape  of  glass-houses. 

CALIFORNIA    PRACTICE* 

(F.   T.   BlOLETTl) 

The  literature  relating  to  the  pruning  and 
training  of  the  vine  is  already  very  voluminous, 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  one  work  which  treats 


*This  account  is  founded  on  "Vine  Pruning,"  by  F.  T.  Bioletti,  Bull. 
119,  Cal.  Exp.  Sta.,  Dec.,  1897,  the  bulletin  being  used  for  this  purpose  by 
permission.  Unless  otherwise  stated,  the  chapter  is  a  verbatim  tran- 
scription of  Bioletti's  essay.  Not  all  of  the  bulletin,  however,  is  here 
reproduced.  Some  of  the  illustrations  have  been  redrawn,  and  others 
have  been  reduced  in  size.  The  bulletin  was  reprinted  in  the  "Cali- 
fornia Fruit- Grower,"  Jan.  15  to  Feb.  5, 1898. 

Persons  who  are  interested  in  the  pruning  and  training  of  the  wine 
or  raisin  grape  in  America  should  also  consult  Wickson's  "California 
Fruits"  and  Eisen's  "Raisin  Industry." 

(494) 


CALIFORNIAN    PRACTICE  495 

the  subject  in  a  thorough  and  convenient  way 
for  California  vine -growers.  Publications  in 
English  refer  generally  to  methods  suited  to  the 
Eastern  states  or  to  hot -house  cultivation,  while 
foreign  publications,  besides  being  more  or  less 
inaccessible,  treat  the  subject  so  widely  that  the 
grower  is  at  a  loss  what  to  choose  from  such  a 
mass  of  material.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this 
bulletin,  therefore,  to  present  a  brief  summary 
of  what  in  foreign  methods  seems  useful  and 
applicable  to  California  conditions,  together  with 
the  results  of  experiments  on  the  University  of 
California  vine  plots,  and  of  observations  made 
in  numerous  vineyards  in  various  regions  of  the 
state. 

Almost  every  vine -growing  district  has  its 
peculiar  systems  of  training,  ranging  from  the 
non -training  usual  in  parts  of  Italy,  where  the 
vine  spreads  almost  at  will  over  trees  planted  for 
the  purpose,  to  the  acme  of  mutilation  practiced 
in  many  localities  where  the  vine  is  reduced  to 
a  mere  stump  barely  rising  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  These  various  systems  will  not  be 
discussed  here,  but  only  those  which  experience 
has  shown  to  be  most  adapted  to  California  con- 
ditions. 

No  account,  however  detailed,  of  any  system 
can  replace  the  intelligence  of  the  cultivator. 
For  this  reason  the  general  principles  of  plant 
physiology  which  underlie  all  proper  pruning 


496  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

and  training  are  discussed  in  connection  with  the 
several  systems  described.  This  should  aid  the 
grower  in  choosing  that  system  most  suited  to 
the  conditions  of  his  vineyard,  and  to  modify  it 
to  suit  special  conditions  and  seasons.  All  the 
operations  of  pruning,  tying,  staking,  etc.,  to 
which  a  cultivated  vine  owes  its  form,  are  con- 
veniently considered  together. 

A  description  of  a  typical  vine  giving  the  names 
of  the  principal  parts  will  make  clear  the  accounts 
of  methods  to  be  given  later.  Fig.  314  repre- 
sents a  vine  of  no  particular  order  of  pruning, 
showing  the  various  parts.  The  main  body  of 
the  vine  (t)  is  called  the  trunk  or  stem ;  the 
principal  division  Cb)  branches  ;  the  smaller  di- 
visions (a)  arms,  and  the  ultimate  ramifications 
(c)  shoots  when  green,  and  canes  when  mature. 
A  shoot  growing  out  of  the  vine  above  ground 
on  any  part  older  than  one  year  (ws)  is  called  a 
watersprout.  Shoots  coming  from  any  part  of 
the  vine  below  ground  (s)  are  called  suckers. 
When  a  cane  is  cut-back  to  1,  2,  3,  or  4i  eyes,  it 
is  called  a  spur  (r).  When  a  shoot  or  cane  of 
one  season  sends  out  a  secondary  shoot  the  same 
season,  the  latter  (I)  is  called  a  lateral. 

The  Fig.  315  represents  an  arm  of  a  vine  as  it 
appears  in  winter  after  the  leaves  have  fallen. 
The  canes  (w1)  are  the  matured  shoots  of  the 
previous  spring,  w2,  w3,  w4  represents  two,  three 
and  four -year -old  wood  respectively.  Near  the 


TERMINOLOGY    OF    THE     VINE  497 

base  of  each  cane  is  a  basal  bud  or  eye  (B°).  In 
counting  the  number  of  eyes  on  a  spur,  the  basal 
eye  is  not  included.  A  cane  cut  at  K1,  for  in- 
stance, leaves  a  spur  of  one  eye,  at  K2  a  spur  of 
two  eyes,  and  so  on.  When  more  than  four  eyes 
are  left,  the  piece  is  generally  called  a  fruiting 
cane  (Fig.  314, /).  The  canes  (c^c1)  coming  from 


314.    Diagram  to  illustrate  terminology. 

two -year -old  wood  (w2)  possess  fruit  buds  ;  that 
is,  they  are  capable  of  producing  fruit -bearing 
shoots.  Watersprouts  (ws)  and  suckers  (s)  do 
not  ordinarily  produce  fruit -bearing  shoots.  Be- 
low the  basal  bud  each  cane  has  one  or  more  dor- 
mant buds  (b,  Fig.  316),  which  do  not  grow  unless 
the  number  of  eyes  left  by  pruning  or  frost  is 
insufficient  to  relieve  the  excess  of  sap  pressure. 
These  buds  produce  sterile  shoots.  Each  eye  on 
a  cane  has  at  its  base  two  dormant  buds.  One 
of  these  sometimes  grows  out  the  year  it  is 

FF 


498  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

formed,  making  a  lateral  (/,  Figs.  314,  315). 
These  laterals  may  send  out  secondary  laterals 
(si,  Fig.  314) .  It  is  on  the  laterals  and  second- 
ary laterals  that  the  so-called  second  and  third 
crops  are  borne. 

PROPER  METHOD  OF  MAKING  CUTS.— It  is  by  no 
means  a  matter  of  indifference  just  where  the  cut 


315.    Illustrating  the  parts  of  the  vine. 

is  made  in  removing  a  cane  or  arm.  This  will 
be  made  clearer  by  referring  to  Fig.  316.  The 
upper  part  of  the  spur  is  represented  as  split  in 
two  longitudinally,  in  order  to  show  the  internal 
structure  of  the  cane.  It  will  be  noted  that  at 
each  bud  there  is  a  slight  swelling  of  the  cane. 
This  is  called  a  node,  and  the  space  between  an 
internode.  The  internodes  are  filled  with  soft 
pith,  but  at  each  node  there  is  a  growth  of  hard. 


WHERE     TO    CUT 


499 


wood  extending  through  the  cane.  Now,  if  the 
cane  be  cut  off  at  c1,  in  the  middle  of  an  inter- 
node,  the  pith  will  shrink  away  and  leave  a  little 
hollow  in  which  the  rain  collects.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent breeding  place  for  fungi  and  bacteria, 
which  cause  rotting  of  the  pith  and  frequently 
kill  the  bud.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  cane  be  cut 
at  c2,  through  a  node,  a  protecting  cover  of  hard 
wood  is  left  which  is  an  effectual  barrier  against 
decay  organisms.  If  a  spur  projects 
too  far  from  the  vine,  and  it  is  de- 
sirable to  make  it  as  short  as  pos- 
sible in  order  not  to  interfere  with 
cultivation,  it  should  be  cut  at  c, 
and  the  cut  made  as  nearly  vertical 
as  possible.  This  allows  the  water 
to  run  off,  and  leaves  less  pith  to 
foster  the  growth  of  the  fungi.  At 
the  base  of  the  cane  there  is  a  slight 
enlargement  (E).  In  removing  a 
cane  completely,  the  cut  should  be 
made  just  above  this  enlargement. 
This  is  the  most  favorable  place  for 
healing,  as  it  makes  the  smallest 
possible  wound,  and  does  not  leave  make  the  cuts. 
a  projecting  stump  of  dead  wood  to 
prevent  the  healing  tissues  from  closing  over  the 
wound.  In  removing  a  piece  of  older  wood,  as 
at  K°  and  T1,  Fig.  315,  it  is  advisable  not  to  cut 
too  close  for  fear  of  injuring  the  spur  by  the  dry- 


316.     How  to 


500  VINIFERA     GRAPE     TRAINING 

ing  out  of  the  wood.  The  projecting  pieces  of 
dead  wood  left  in  this  way  should  be  carefully 
removed  the  next  year,  in  order  to  allow  the 
wound  to  heal  over.  The  large  cuts  which  are 
thus  occasionally  necessary  are  most  easily  per- 
formed by  means  of  a  well-made  and  well- 
sharpened  pair  of  two -hand  pruning  shears. 
These  shears  are  often  to  be  preferred  to  the  ordi- 
nary one -hand  shears,  because  they  render  the 
cutting  through  the  nodes  easier,  and  do  away 
almost  entirely  with  the  necessity  of  a  saw.  Of 
course,  a  careless  workman  may  split  and  injure 
vines  seriously  by  using  long -handled  shears 
clumsily,  but  the  bending  of  arms  to  facilitate 
cutting  with  the  one -hand  shears,  often  results 
in  the  same  evil.  The  one -hand  shears,  however, 
are  more  convenient  when  many  long  fruiting 
canes  are  left,  as  the  necessary  trimming  off  of 
tendrils  and  laterals  is  more  easily  performed  with 
them. 

SHORT  AND  LONG  PRUNING. — The  winter -prun- 
ing of  the  vine  consists  in  cutting  off  a  certain 
amount  of  the  mature  wood  of  the  immediately 
preceding  season's  growth  (canes),  and  occa- 
sionally of  the  older  wood.  The  main  problem 
of  winter -pruning,  then,  resolves  itself  into  de- 
termining how  much  and  what  wood  shall  be  left. 
In  all  kinds  of  pruning  most  of  the  canes  are  re- 
moved entirely. 

In   short -pruning  the   remainder   are   cut  back 


SHORT  AND  LONG  PRUNING        501 

to  spurs  of  one,  two  or  three  eyes.  The  number 
of  spurs  is  regulated  by  the  vigor  and  age  of  the 
vine.  This  mode  of  pruning  can  be  used  only 
for  varieties  in  which  the  eyes  near  the  base  of 
the  cane  are  fruitful.  For  all  other  cases  long 
or  half -long  pruning  is  necessary. 

In  half -long  pruning,  certain  canes  are  left  with 
from  four  to  six  eyes,  according  to  the  length 
of  the  internodes.  These  canes  or  fruit -spurs 
will  bear  more  fruit  than  short  spurs  for  three 
reasons :  1,  because  there  will  be  more  fruit- 
bearing  shoots ;  2,  because  the  upper  eyes  are 
more  fruitful  than  the  lower ;  and  3,  because  a 
larger  number  of  eyes  being  supplied  with  sap 
from  the  same  arm,  each  shoot  will  be  less  vig- 
orous and  therefore  more  fruitful.  Owing,  how- 
ever, to  the  tendency  of  the  vine  to  expend  the 
principal  part  of  its  vigor  on  the  shoots  farthest 
removed  from  the  base  of  the  canes,  the  lower 
eyes  on  the  long  spurs  will  generally  produce 
very  feeble  shoots.  In  order,  then,  to  obtain 
spurs  of  sufficient  vigor  for  the  next  year's  crop, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  choose  them  near  the 
ends  of  the  long  spurs  of  the  previous  year,  if 
no  others  were  left.  This  would  result  in  a 
rapid  and  inconvenient  elongation  of  the  arms. 
In  order  to  avoid  this  it  is  necessary  to  leave  a 
spur  of  one  or  two  eyes  below  each  long -fruiting 
spur,  that  is  to  say,  near  the  trunk.  These 
short  wood  spurs  having  only  one  or  two  eyes, 


502  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

will  produce  vigorous  canes  for  the  following 
year,  and  the  spurs  which  have  borne  fruit  may 
be  removed  altogether,  thus  preventing  an  undue 
elongation  of  the  arms.  In  half -long  pruning, 
however,  it  is  very  hard  to  retain  the  proper 
equilibrium  between  vigor  and  fruitfulness.  If  a 
little  too  much  wood  is  left  the  shoots  from  the 
wood  spurs  will  not  develop  sufficiently,  and  the 
next  year  we  have  to  choose  between  leaving 
small  under -sized  spurs  near  the  trunk  and  spurs 
of  proper  size  too  far  removed  from  the  trunk. 
In  long -pruning  this  difficulty,  as  will  be  seen, 
is  to  a  great  extent  avoided. 

In  long-pruning,  the  fruit  spurs  of  half-long 
pruning  are  replaced  by  long  fruit  canes.  These 
are  left  two  or  three  feet  long,  or  longer.  The 
danger  here  that  the  vine  will  expend  all  its  en- 
ergies on  the  terminal  buds  of  these  long  canes 
and  leave  the  eyes  of  the  wood  spurs  undeveloped 
is  still  greater  than  in  half -long  pruning.  This 
difficulty  is  overcome  by  bending  or  twisting  the 
fruit  canes  in  some  manner.  This  bending 
causes  a  certain  amount  of  injury  to  the  tissues 
of  the  canes,  which  tends  to  check  the  flow  of 
sap  towards  their  ends.  The  sap  pressure  thus 
increases  in  the  lower  buds  and  forces  them  out 
into  strong  shoots  to  be  used  for  spurs  for  the 
next  pruning.  The  bending  has  the  further  effect 
of  diminishing  the  vigor  of  the  shoots  on  the  fruit 
canes,  and  thus  increasing  their  fruitfulness. 


THE    YOUNG    VINE  503 

This  principle  of  increase  of  fruitfulness  by 
mechanical  injury  is  very  useful  if  properly  un- 
derstood and  applied.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  vines  attacked  by  phylloxera  or  root -rot 
will  for  one  year  bear  an  exceptionally  large 
crop  on  account  of  the  diminution  of  vigor 
caused  by  the  injury  to  their  roots.  A  vine  also 
which  has  been  mutilated  by  the  removal  of 
several  large  arms  will  often  produce  heavily  the 
following  year.  In  all  these  cases,  however,  the 
transient  gain  is  more  than  counter -balanced  by 
the  permanent  injury  and  loss.  The  proper  ap- 
plications of  the  principle  is  to  injure  tissues 
only  of  those  parts  of  the  plant  which  it  is  in- 
tended to  remove  the  next  year  (fruit  canes),  and 
thus  increase  fruitfulness  without  doing  any  per- 
manent injury  to  the  plant. 

PRUNING  OF  YOUNG  VINES.— When  a  rooted 
vine  is  first  planted,  it  should  be  cut  back  to 
two  eyes.  If  the  growth  is  not  very  good  the 
first  season,  all  the  canes  but  one  should  be  re- 
moved at  the  first  pruning,  and  that  one  left 
with  two  or  three  eyes,  according  to  its  strength. 
The  next  year,  or  the  same  year  in  the  case  of 
strong  growing  vines  in  rich  soil,  the  strongest 
cane  should  be  left  about  twelve  inches  long  and 
tied  up  to  the  stake.  The  next  year  two  spurs 
may  be  left,  of  two  or  three  eyes  each.  These  spurs 
will  determine  the  position  of  the  head  or  place 
from  which  the  arms  of  the  vine  spring.  It  is 


504  VINIPERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

important,  therefore,  that  they  should  be  chosen 
at  the  right  height  from  the  ground.  From 
ten  to  twenty  inches  is  about  the  right  height ; 
the  lowest  for  dry  hillsides,  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  frosts ;  the  highest  for  rich  bottom 
lands,  where  the  vine  will  naturally  grow  large. 
Vines  grown  without  stakes  will  have  to  be 
headed  lower  than  this  in  order  to  make  them 
support  themselves.  In  the  following  few  years 
the  number  of  spurs  should  be  increased  grad- 
ually, care  being  taken  to  shape  the  vine 
properly  and  to  maintain  an  equal  balance  of  the 
arms. 

In  general,  young  vines  are  more  vigorous  than 
old,  and  tend  more  to  send  out  shoots  from 
basal  and  dormant  buds.  They  should,  there- 
fore, be  given  more  and  longer  spurs  in  propor- 
tion than  older  vines.  They  also  tend  to  bud 
out  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  are  thus  liable 
to  be  frost-bitten.  For  this  reason  they  are 
generally  pruned  late  (March)  in  frosty  loca- 
tions. This  protects  them  in  two  ways.  In  the 
first  place,  in  unpruned  vines  the  buds  near  the 
ends  of  the  canes  start  first  and  relieve  the  sap 
pressure,  and  though  these  are  caught  by  the  frost, 
the  buds  near  the  base,  not  having  started,  are 
saved.  In  the  second  place,  the  pruning  being 
done  when  the  sap  is  flowing,  there  is  a  loss  of 
sap  from  the  cut  ends  of  the  spurs,  which  further 
relieves  the  sap  pressure  and  retards  the  starting 


MODES    OF    PRUNING  505 

of  the  lower  eyes.  This  method  of  preventing 
the  injury  of  spring  frosts  by  very  late  pruning 
has  been  tried  with  bearing  vines,  but  is  very  in- 
jurious. Older  vines,  being  less  vigorous  are 
unable  to  withstand  the  heavy  drain  caused  by 
the  profuse  bleeding  which  ensues  ;  and  though 
no  apparent  damage  may  be  done  the  first  year, 
if  the  treatment  is  continued  they  may  be  com- 
pletely ruined  in  three  or  four  years. 


Systems   of  Pruning 

The  systems  of  pruning  adapted  to  vineyards 
in  California  may  be  divided  into  six  types,  ac- 
cording to  the  form  given  to  the  main  body  of 
the  vine  and  the  length  of  the  spurs  and  fruit- 
ing canes. 

A.  Vine  pruned  to  a  head,  with  short  arms. 

I.  With   spurs  of  two   or   three    eyes   only 

(short -pruning). 

II.  With  wood  spurs  of  one  or  two  eyes  and 
fruit  spurs  of  four  to  six  eyes  (half- 
long  pruning). 

III.  With    wood   spurs  of    one    or   two   eyes 
and  long  fruit  canes  (long -pruning). 

B.  Vine  with  a  long  horizontal  branch  or  con- 

tinuation of  the  trunk. 

IV.  With  spurs  of  two  or  three  eyes  only 
(short -pruning). 


506  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

V.  With  wood  spurs  of  one  or  two  eyes  and 
fruit  spurs  of   four  to  six  eyes   (half- 
long- pruning). 
VI.  With  wood  spurs  of    one   or   two  eyes 

and  long  fruit  canes  ( long- pruning ). 
These  types  are  applicable  to  different  varieties 
of  vines,  according — (1)  To  the  natural  stature  of 
the  vine — that  is  to  say,  whether  it  is  a  large  or 
small  grower  and  tends  to  make  a  large,  extended 
trunk  or  a  limited  one.  (2)  To  the  position  of 
the  fruit -buds.  In  some  varieties  all  the  buds  of 
the  canes  are  capable  of  producing  fruitful  shoots, 
while  in  others  the  one,  two  or  three  buds  nearest 
the  base  produce  only  sterile  shoots.  (3)  To  the 
size  of  the  individual  bunches.  It  is  necessary  in 
order  to  obtain  a  full  crop  from  a  variety  with 
small  bunches,  to  leave  a  larger  number  of  eyes 
than  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  varieties  with 
large  bunches. 

What  type  or  modification  of  a  type  shall  be 
'adopted  in  a  particular  instance,  depends  both  on 
the  variety  of  vine  and  on  the  nature  of  the  vine- 
yard. A  vine  growing  on  a  dry  hillside  must  not 
be  pruned  the  same  as  another  vine  of  the  same 
variety  growing  on  rich  bottom  land.  In  general, 
vines  on  rich  soil,  where  they  tend  to  grow  large 
and  develop  abundant  vegetation,  should  be  given 
plenty  of  room  and  allowed  to  spread  themselves, 
and  should  be  given  plenty  of  fruiting -buds  in 
order  to  control  their  too  strong  inclination  to  "  go 


SHORT -PRUNING 


507 


to  wood."  Vines  on  poor  soil,  on  the  contrary, 
should  be  planted  closer  together  and  pruned 
shorter,  or  with  fewer  fruiting -buds,  in  order  to 
maintain  their  vigor. 

TYPE  I. — This  is  the  ordinary  short -pruning 
practiced  in  ninety  per  cent  of  the  vineyards  of 
California,  and  is  the  simplest  and  least  expensive 
manner  of  pruning  the  vine.  It  is,  however, 
suited  only  to  vines  of  small  growth,  which  pro- 


317.     Epochs  in  the  common  short-pruning  system. 

duce  fruitful  shoots  from  the  lowest  buds,  and  of 
which  the  bunches  are  large  enough  to  admit  of  a 
full  crop  from  the  small  number  of  buds  which  are 
left  by  this  method.  The  chief  objection  to  this 
method  for  heavily -bearing  vines  is  that  the 
bunches  are  massed  together  in  a  way  that  favors 
rotting  of  the  grapes  and  exposes  the  different 
bunches  unequally  to  light  and  heat. 


508  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

The  Fig.  317  represents  the  simplest  form  of 
this  style  of  pruning.  The  vine  should  be  given 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  form  of  a  goblet, 
slightly  flattened  in  the  direction  of  the  rows.  It 
is  important  that  the  vine  be  kept  regular  and 
with  equally  balanced  arms.  This  is  the  chief 
difficulty  of  the  method,  and  calls  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  some  judgment.  From  the  first,  the 
required  form  of  the  vine  should  be  kept  in 
view.  On  varieties  with  a  trailing  habit  of 
growth,  vertical  spurs  must  be  chosen, .  and 
with  some  upright  growers  it  will  be  found 
necessary  to  choose  spurs  nearer  the  horizontal. 

The  arms  must  be  kept  short  for  convenience  of 
cultivation  and  to  give  them  the  requisite  strength 
to  support  their  crop  without  bending  or  breaking. 
For  this  reason  the  lowest  of  the  two  or  three 
canes  coming  from  last  year's  spur  should  be  left. 
For  instance,  on  Fig.  315  the  cane  should  be  cut 
at  K2  or  K3,  according  as  two  or  three  eyes  are 
needed,  and  the  rest  of  the  arm  removed  at  K°. 
As  even  with  the  greatest  care  some  arms  will 
become  too  long  or  project  in  wrong  directions,  it 
is  necessary  to  renew  them  by  means  of  canes 
from  the  old  wood  or  watersprouts.  For  instance, 
if  the  other  arm  represented  on  Fig.  315  were  too 
long,  it  should  be  removed  and  replaced  by  an- 
other developed  from  the  cane  (ws).  As  the 
cane  comes  from  three -year -old  wood  it  cannot  be 
depended  on  to  produce  grapes.  For  this  reason 


SHORT  -  PRUNING  509 

it  is  best  the  first  year  to  prune  the  arm  at  T, 
leaving  a  spur  for  fruit,  and  cut  the  watersprout 
at  T°,  leaving  a  wood  spur  of  one  eye.  The  next 
year  the  cane  coming  from  the  first  eye  of  ws  can 
be  left  for  a  fruit -spur,  and  the  arm  removed  at 
T1.  The  cutting -back  of  an  elongated  arm 
should  not  be  deferred  too  long,  as  the  removal  of 
old  arms  leaves  large  wounds,  which  weaken  the 
vine  and  render  it  liable  to  attacks  of  fungi. 

In  order  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the 
arms,  it  is  often  necessary  to  prune  back  the  more 
vigorous  arms  severely  in  order  to  throw  the 
strength  of  the  vine  into  the  weaker  arms.  If 
the  vine  appears  too  vigorous,  that  is,  if  it  ap- 
pears to  be  "going  to  wood"  at  the  expense  of  the 
crop,  two  spurs  may  be  left  on  some  or  all  of  the 
arms.  In  this  case  the  upper  spur  should  be  cut 
above  the  third  eye  (K4,  Fig.  315),  and  the  lower 
above  the  first  or  second  (K1  or  K2).  This  will 
cause  the  bulk  of  the  fruit  to  be  borne  on  the 
upper  spur,  and  the  most  vigorous  shoots  to  be 
developed  on  the  lower,  which  provides  the  wood 
for  the  following  year.  This  is  an  approach  to  the 
next  (half -long)  method  of  pruning. 

[Professor  Wickson  sends  me  Fig.  318  as  "a 
clear,  satisfactory  and  characteristic  view  of  the 
illimitable  valley  raisin  extensions"  of  California. 
— L.  H.  B.] 

TYPE  II. — Vines  which  require  more  wood  than 
can  well  be  given  by  ordinary  short  pruning,  or 


SHORT -PRUNING 


511 


of  which  the  lower  eyes  are  not  sufficiently  pro- 
ductive, may  iu  some  cases  be  pruned  in  the 
manner  illustrated  by  Fig.  319.  For  some  va- 
rieties it  is  necessary  to  leave  spurs  of  only  three 
eyes,  as  at  s;  for  others,  short  canes  of  four  or 
five  eyes  must  be  left,  as  at  cc.  These  shorter 
spurs  can  be  left  without  support,  but  the  longer 

ones  require  some  arrangement   to   prevent   their 
c 


319.    Another  type  of 
short-pruning. 


320.     Still  longer  pruning. 


bending  over  with  the  weight  of  fruit  and  de- 
stroying the  shape  of  the  vine.  In  some  cases 
simply  tying  the  ends  of  the  canes  together  will 
support  them  fairly  well,  but  it  is  better  to 
attach  them  to  a  stake,  and  bend  them  at  the 
base  a  little  when  possible,  in  order  to  retard  the 
flow  of  sap  to  the  ends.  It  is  very  necessary  to 
leave  strong  spurs  of  one  eye  (not  counting  the 


512  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

basal  eye)  in  order  to  provide  wood  for  the  fol- 
lowing year.  At  the  pruning  following  the  one 
represented  in  the  cut,  the  fruiting  part  of  the 
arms  will  be  removed  at  M,  and  a  new  fruiting 
spur  or  cane  made  of  the  cane  which  comes  from 
the  eye  on  the  wood  spurs  w.  The  basal  bud  on 
w  will  in  all  probability  have  produced  a  cane 
which  can  be  cut  back  to  one  eye  to  furnish  a 
new  wood -spur.  If  this  is  not  the  case  it  shows 
that  too  much  wood  was  left  the  first  year,  and 
therefore  no  fruit -cane  should  be  left  on  this 
arm,  but  only  a  single  spur  of  two  or  three  eyes. 
This  will  be  a  return  to  short  pruning,  and  must 
be  resorted  to  whenever  the  small  size  of  the 
canes  or  the  failure  to  produce  replac- 
ing wood  near  the  head  of  the  vine 
shows  that  the  vigor  is  diminishing.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  the  arm  shows  an  abun- 
dance of  vigorous  canes,  proving  that 
the  vine  has  not  overborne,  a  fruit -cane 
may  be  left  from  one  of  the  shoots 
coming  from  the  lower  buds  of  the 
fruit -cane  c,  and  a  new  wood -spur  of 
two  eyes  left  on  the  shoot  coming 
from  the  wood -spur  of  the  previous 
year  (w) .  In  this  case,  the  removal  of 
the  arm  at  k  is  deferred  one  year,  and  the  extra 
vigor  of  the  vine  is  made  use  of  to  produce  an 
extra  crop. 

TYPE  III. — This   style  is   an   extension  of  the 


TYING    THE    CANES  513 

principles  used  in  Type  II,  as  will  be  understood 
by  referring  to  Fig.  320.  The  fruiting  canes 
are  left  still  longer,  and  in  some  cases  almost 
the  full  length  of  the  cane.  As  each  cane  will 
thus  produce  a  large  amount  of  fruit,  fewer  arms 
are  necessary  than  in  the  preceding  method.  It 
is  especially  necessary  to  leave  good,  strong  spurs 
of  one  or  two  eyes  to  produce  wood  for  the  fol- 
lowing year.  There  are  various  methods  of  dis- 
posing of  the  long  fruiting  canes,  the  worst  of 
which  is  to  tie  them  straight  up  to  the  stake,  as 
was  recommended  for  the  half -long  canes.  In 
the  latter  case,  owing  to  their  shortness,  a 
certain  amount  of  bending  of  the  canes  is  pos- 
sible with  this  method  of  tying.  With  long 
canes,  on  the  contrary,  it  usually  allows  of  no 
bending,  and  as  a  result  there  ensues  a  vigorous 
growth  of  shoots  at  the  ends  of  the  fruiting 
canes,  and  little  or  no  growth  in  the  parts  where 
it  is  necessary  to  look  for  wood  the  following 
year.  Often,  indeed,  each  long  cane  will  pro- 
duce only  three  shoots,  and  these  from  the  three 
terminal  eyes,  all  the  other  eyes  of  the  cane 
remaining  dormant.  The  object  of  long  pruning 
is  thus  doubly  defeated,  1st,  because  no  more 
shoots  are  produced  than  by  short  pruning ;  and 
2nd,  because  the  shoots  which  should  produce 
fruit  are  rendered  especially  vigorous  by  their 
terminal  and  vertical  position,  and  therefore  less 
fruitful.  Each  year  all  this  vigorous  growth  of 
GG 


514  VINIPERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

wood  at  the  ends  of  the  canes  must  be  cut  away 
in  order  to  keep  the  vine  within  practical 
bounds,  and  the  fruit -canes  renewed  from  the 
less  vigorous  cane  below.  These  canes  are  less 
vigorous  because  the  main  strength  of  the  vine 
hag  been  expended  on  the  upper  canes,  which  are 
most  favorably  placed  for  vegetative  vigor. 
Vines  treated  in  this  way  may  be  gradually 
exhausted,  though  producing  only  a  moderate 


322.    Another  method  of  tying  the  canes. 

or   small   crop  of  fruit,  by  being  forced   to  pro- 
duce an  abundant  crop  of  wood. 

One  of  the  simplest  ways  of  tying  the  fruiting 
canes  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  321.  The  canes  are 
bent  into  a  circle,  the  ends  tied  to  the  stake  near 
the  head  of  the  vine,  and  the  middle  of  the  circle 
attached  higher  up.  The  tying  should  be  done 
so  that  the  cane  receives  a  severe  bend  near  the 
base — that  is,  about  the  region  of  the  second  and 
third  eyes.  This  can  usually  be  accomplished 


TYING    THE    CANES  515 

by  tying  the  end  of  the  cane  first,  and  then  press- 
ing down  on  the  middle  of  the  bow  until  the  de- 
sired bend  is  attained.  If  two  fruiting  canes  are 
left,  they  should  be  made  to  cross  each  other  at 
right  angles  in  order  to  distribute  the  fruit  as 
equally  as  possible.  As  a  rule,  more  than  two 
canes  should  not  be  tied  up  in  this  way,  as  it 
makes  too  dense  a  shade,  and  masses  the  fruit 
too  much. 

The  Fig.  322  shows  another  method  of  tying 
the  long  canes.  A  horizontal  wire  is  stretched 
along  the  row  at  about  fifteen  to  twenty  inches 
above  the  ground.  To  this  the  fruiting  canes 
should  be  attached,  using  the  same  precaution 
of  bending  the  canes  near  the  bases.  The  upper 
part  of  the  canes  is  not  bent  in  this  case  as  in  the 
last,  but  the  necessary  diminution  of  vigor  and 
increase  of  fruitfulness  is  brought  about  by  the 
horizontal  position.  Two  canes  may  be  attached 
to  the  wire  on  each  side.  The  stake  is  best  used 
to  support  the  shoots  destined  for  the  wood  for 
the  following  year.  This  makes  it  possible,  where 
topping  is  practiced,  to  cut  off  the  ends  of  the 
shoots  from  the  fruiting  canes,  and  to  leave  the 
rest  their  full  length.  Another,  or  even  two 
other  wires,  may  be  used  above  the  first  for  more 
canes,  but  this  is  seldom  profitable,  and  consider- 
ably increases  the  cost,  both  of  installation  and 
of  pruning. 

This  style  of  pruning  is  especially  favorable  to 


516  VINIPEEA     GRAPE     TRAINING 

varieties  of  small  growth,  which  bear  small 
bunches,  and  principally  on  the  upper  eyes,  and 
to  varieties  of  larger  growth  in  hilly  or  poor  soils. 
One  of  its  main  objections  is  that  .  it  renders 
some  varieties  more  liable  to  sunburn. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  long -pruned  vines 
are  represented  in  the  figures  as  having  much 
fewer  arms  than  the  short -pruned.  This  is 
necessary  and  important.  In  order  to  maintain 
a  well-balanced  vine,  and  keep  it  under  control, 
there  should  be  only  about  as  many  arms  as  long 
canes,  or  at,  most  one  or  two  more. 

[The  views  in  Figs.  323,  324  show  the  long- 
pruning  or  "pruning  to  a  high  stake."  They 
are  supplied  by  Professor  Wickson. — L.  H.  B.] 

TYPES  IV.,  V.  AND  VI.— The  three  styles  of 
pruning  so  far  described  have  been  fairly  thor- 
oughly tested  in  California,  and  each  has  been 
found  applicable  to  certain  varieties  and  conditions . 
There  are  some  varieties,  however,  which  do  not 
give  good  results  with  any  of  these  systems.  This 
is  the  case  with  many  valuable  table  grapes,  espe- 
cially when  grown  in  rich  valley  soil,  where  they 
should  do  best.  For  these  cases  some  modification 
of  the  French  cordon  system  is  to  be  recom- 
mended. Little  trial  of  this  method  nas  been  made 
as  yet,  but  what  has  been  done  is  very  promising. 
The  tendency  of  many  grapes  to  coulure  is  over- 
come, and  rich  soils  are  made  to  produce  crops  in 
proportion  to  their  richness.  The  method  consists 


323.     Long-pruning,  before  the  vines  are  trimmed. 


324.     Long-pruning,  after  the  vines  are  trimmed. 


518  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

essentially  in  allowing  the  vine  to  grow  in  a  more 
or  less  horizontal  direction  for  several  feet,  thus 
giving  a  larger  body  and  fruiting  surface. 

The  treatment  of  the  young  vines  the  first  year 
is  the  same  as  for  head -pruning,  as  already  de- 
scribed. As  soon  as  the  young  vine  produces  a 
good,  strong  shoot  it  is  tied  up  to  the  wire  and  bo 
the  stake  which  is  placed  between  the  vines  in  the 
rows.  Each  vine  should  finally  reach  its  neighbor, 
but  it  requires  two  or  three  years  for  this  if  the 
vines  are  six  or  seven  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  It  is 
possible,  by  cutting  the  vine  back  nearly  to  the 
ground  for  the  first  year  or  two,  to  obtain  a  cane 
which  will  stretch  the  whole  distance  between  the 
vines  at  the  first  tying  up;  but  this  is  not  neces- 
sary nor  advisable.  Neither  is  it  advisable  to 
make  a  very  sharp  angle  (almost  a  right  angle),  as 
is  usually  done  in  regular  cordon  pruning,  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  preventing  the  vine 
from  sending  out  an  inconvenient  number  of  shoots 
at  the  bend.  The  vine  might  be  grown  with  two 
branches,  one  stretching  in  either  direction,  but 
this  has  been  found  inconvenient  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  preserving  an  equal  balance  of  the 
branches.  The  direction  in  which  the  vine  is 
trained  should  be  that  of  the  prevailing  high 
winds,  as  this  will  minimize  the  chances  of  shoots 
being  blown  off.  When  the  cordon  or  body  of  the 
vine  is  well -formed,  it  may  be  pruned  with  all  the 
modifications  of  short,  half-long  and  long-pruning 


CORDON    VINES 


519 


already  described  in  head- pruning,  and  the  same 
precautions  are  necessary  to  preserve  the  balance 
and  symmetry  of  the  vine  and  to  maintain  it  at 
the  highest  degree  of  fruitfulness  without  unduly 
exhausting  it. 


325.    Training  short-pruned  cordons. 


326.    Training  of  long-pruned  cordons. 

The  Figs.  325  and  326  will  sufficiently  illustrate 
the  way  of  shaping  and  tying  short  and  long- 
pruned  vines.  For  some  table  grapes,  extension 
.of  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  325  in  the  direction 
of  half -long  pruning  is  useful.  On  a  heavy  soil 
the  short  spurs  do  not  provide  sufficient  outlet  for 


520 


VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 


the  vigor  of  the  vine,  while  long -pruning  would 
unduly  increase  the  number  of  bunches  on  a  sin- 
gle cane,  and  so  reduce  their  size,  which  would 
deteriorate  from  their  value  as  table  grapes. 

The  Fig.  327  represents  a  style  of  pruning  used 
with  success  in  some  of  the  richest  low -lying  soils 
of  France.  The  body  of  the  vine  raised  up  to  a 
height  of  two  and  a -half  or  three  feet  above  the 
soil,  a  useful  means  of  lessening  the  danger  from 
spring  frosts.  The  fruit -canes  are  bent  vertically 


327.    Drooping  training  of  long-pruned  cordons. 

downward,  thus  restricting  the  flow  of  sap  suffi- 
ciently to  force  out  the  lower  buds  of  the  fruit- 
canes  into  strong  shoots,  which  can  be  used  for 
fruit  canes  of  the  following  year.  This  does  away, 
to  some  extent,  with  the  necessity  of  leaving 
wood -spurs,  and  much  simplifies  the  pruning. 
Arms,  of  course,  are  formed  in  time,  and  very 
gradually  elongate,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  one  occasionally  and  replace  it  by  a 


SUMMER    TREATMENT  521 

water -sprout,  as   already   explained   under   short- 
pruning. 

Summer  Pruning 

Some  form  of  summer  or  green  pruning  is 
practised  in  most  California  vineyards,  if  in  the 
term  we  include  all  the  operations  to  which  the 
green  shoots  are  subjected.  There  seems,  how- 
ever, to  be  little  system  used,  and  very  little 
understanding  of  its  true  nature  and  object.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  green  pruning  of 
the  vine  is  least  needed,  and  is  often  harmful  in 
warm,  dry  locations  and  seasons,  and  of  most  use 
under  cool  and  damp  conditions. 

The  principal  kinds  of  green  pruning  are:  1, 
Pinching;  2,  Suckering  and  Sprouting;  3,  Top- 
ping; 4,  Removal  of  Leaves. 

PINCHING  consists  in  removing  the  extreme 
growing  tip  of  a  young  shoot.  It  is  necessary 
to  remove  only  about  half  an  inch  to  accomplish 
the  purpose  of  preventing  further  elongation  of 
the  shoot,  as  all  growth  in  length  takes  place  at 
the  extreme  tip.  The  immediate  result  of  pinch- 
ing is  to  concentrate  the  sap  in  the  leaves  and 
blossoms  of  the  shoots,  and  finally  to  force  out 
the  dormant  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  It 
has  been  found  useful  in  some  cases  to  combat 
coulure  or  dropping  with  heavy -growing  varie- 
ties, such  as  the  Claire tte  Blanche.  It  is  also  of 
use  in  preventing  unsupported  shoots  from  be- 


522  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

coming  too  long  while  still  tender,  and  being 
broken  off  by  the  wind.  It  can,  of  course,  be 
used  only  on  fruiting  shoots,  and  not  on  shoots 
intended  for  wood  for  the  following  year. 

SUCKERING  is  the  removal  of  shoots  that  have 
their  origin  below  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  shoots  should  be  removed  as 
thoroughly  as  possible,  the  enlargement  at  the 
base  being  cut  off  in  order  to  destroy  the  dor- 
mant basal  buds.  An  abundant  growth  of  suckers 
indicates  either  careless  suckering  of  former  years 
(which  has  allowed  a  mass  of  buds  below  the 
ground,  a  kind  of  subterranean  arm,  to  develop), 
or  too  limited  an  outlet  for  the  sap.  The  latter 
may  be  due  to  frost  or  other  injuries  to  the  upper, 
part  of  the  vine,  but  is  commonly  caused  by  too 
close  pruning. 

SPROUTING  is  the  removal  of  sterile  shoots  or 
" watersprouts"  from  the  upper  part  of  the  vine. 
Under  nearly  all  circumstances  this  is  an  un- 
necessary and  often  a  harmful  operation,  especially 
in  warm,  dry  locations.  An  exception  may  per- 
haps be  made  under  some  conditions  of  varieties 
like  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  which  has  a  strong 
tendency  to  produce  "  watersprouts"  which,  grow- 
ing through  the  bunches,  injure  them  for  table 
and  drying  purposes. 

WATERSPROUTS  are  produced  from  dormant  buds 
in  the  old  wood,  and  as  these  buds  require  a  higher 
sap  pressure  to  cause  them  to  start  than  do  the 


SUMMER    TREATMENT  523 

fruitful  buds,  the  occurrence  of  many  water 
sprouts  indicates  that  too  limited  a  number  of 
fruitful  buds  has  been  left  upon  the  vine  to 
utilize  all  the  sap  pumped  up  by  the  roots.  To 
remove  these  watersprouts,  therefore,  while  they 
are  young  is  simply  to  shut  off  an  outlet  for  the 
superabundant  sap,  and  thus  to  injure  the  vine 
by  interfering  with  the  water  equilibrium,  or  to 
cause  it  to  force  out  new  watersprouts  in  other 
places.  Any  vigorous  vine  will  produce  a  certain 
number  of  watersprouts,  but  they  should  not  be 
looked  upon  as  utterly  useless  and  harmful,  be- 
cause they  produce  no  grapes.  On  the  contrary, 
if  not  too  numerous,  they  are  of  positive  advan- 
tage to  the  vine,  being  so  much  increase  to  the 
feeding  surface  of  green  leaves.  Watersprouts 
should  be  removed  completely  during  the  winter 
pruning,  and  the  production  of  too  many  the  next 
year  prevented  by  a  more  liberal  allowance  of 
bearing  wood. 

TOPPING,  or  cutting  off  the  ends  of  shoots,  is 
done  by  a  means  of  a  sickle  or  long  knife.  At 
least  two  or  three  leaves  should  be  left  beyond  the 
last  bunch  of  grapes.  The  time  at  which  the 
topping  is  done  is  very  important.  When  the 
object  is  simply  to  prevent  the  breaking  of  the 
heavy,  succulent  canes  of  some  varieties  by  the 
wind,  or  to  facilitate  cultivation,  it  must,  of 
course,  be  done  early,  and  is  well  replaced  by 
early  pinching.  These  objects  are,  however,  bet- 


524  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

ter  attained  by  appropriate  methods  of  planting 
and  training.  Early  topping  is  inadvisable  be- 
cause it  induces  a  vigorous  growth  of  laterals, 
which  make  too  dense  a  shade,  and  it  may  even 
force  the  main  eyes  to  sprout,  and  thus  injure  the 
wood  for  the  next  year.  The  legitimate  function 
of  topping  is  to  direct  the  flow  of  food  material 
in  the  vine  first  into  the  fruit,  and  second  into 
the  buds  for  the  growth  of  the  following  year. 
If  the  topping  is  done  while  the  vine  is  in  active 
growth,  this  object  is  not  attained ;  one  growing 
tip  is  simply  replaced  by  several.  In  this  way,  in 
rich,  moist  soils  vines  are  often,  by  repeated  top- 
pings, kept  in  a  continual  state  of  production  of 
new  shoots,  and  as  these  new  shoots  consume 
more  food  than  they  produce,  the  crop  suffers. 
Not  only  does  the  crop  of  the  current  year  suffer, 
but  still  more  the  crop  of  the  following  year,  for 
the  vine  devotes  its  energy  to  producing  new 
shoots  in  the  autumn  instead  of  storing  up  reserve 
food -material  for  the  next  spring  growth.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  topping  is  done  after  all  leaf 
growth  is  over  for  the  season,  the  only  effect  is 
to  deprive  the  vine  of  so  much  food -absorbing 
surface. 

The  topping,  then,  should  be  so  timed  that, 
while  a  further  lengthening  of  the  main  shoot 
is  prevented,  no  excessive  sprouting  of  new  lat- 
erals is  produced.  The  exact  time  differs  for 
locality,  season  and  variety,  and  must  be  left 


THE    DIFFERENT    VARIETIES  525 

to  the  experience  and  judgment  of  the  individual 
grower. 

REMOVAL  OF  LEAVES. — In  order  to  allow  the 
sun  to  penetrate  to  and  aid  the  ripening  of  late 
grapes,  it  is  often  advisable  late  in  the  season  to 
lessen  the  leafy  shade  of  the  vine.  This  should 
be  done  by  removing  the  leaves  from  the  center  of 
the  vines,  and  not  by  cutting  away  the  canes.  In 
this  way  only  those  leaves  are  removed  which  are 
injurious,  and  as  much  leaf  surface  as  possible  is 
left  to  perform  the  autumn  duty  of  laying  up 
food -material  for  the  spring.  The  removal  of 
leaves  should  not  be  excessive,  and  if  consider- 
able, should  be  gradual,  otherwise  there  is  danger 
of  sunburn.  It  is  best,  first,  to  remove  the  leaves 
from  below  the  fruit.  This  allows  free  circulation 
of  the  air  and  penetration  of  the  sun's  rays,  which 
warm  the  soil  and  are  reflected  upon  the  fruit. 
This  is  generally  sufficient,  and  in  any  case  only 
the  leaves  in  the  center  of  the  vine,  and  especially 
those  which  are  beginning  to  turn  yellow,  should 
be  removed. 

Classification  of  the  Varieties 

In  the  list  of  varieties  which  follows,  an  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  indicate  the  mode  of 
pruning  which  is  likely,  in  the  light  of  our  pres- 
ent knowledge,  to  give  the  best  results  for  each 
variety.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that 


526  VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 

it  is  to  some  extent  tentative  and  provisional. 
Many  of  the  varieties  have  proved  successful  in 
certain  soils  and  locations  when  pruned  in  the 
way  indicated,  but  others  have  never,  so  far  as 
we  know,  been  tested  in  the  way  proposed.  As 
these  latter,  however,  have  proved  more  or  less 
unsuccessful  under  the  common  methods  of  treat- 
ment, the  method  proposed  is  the  one  which 
seems  most  suitable  to  their  habit  and  general 
characters.  It  seems  probable  that  the  tendency 
to  coulure  of  some  varieties,  such  as  the  Muscat, 
Malbeck,  Merlot,  Clairette,  etc.,  can  be  corn- 
batted  to  a  great  extent  by  appropriate  methods 
of  pruning  and  training.  Unevenness  of  ripen- 
ing and  liability  to  sunburn  of  Tokay,  Zinfandel, 
etc.,  can  doubtless  be  controlled  by  the  same 
means. 

Very  few  varieties  succeed  under  strictly  short- 
pruning,  that  is,  cutting  back  to  one  and  two 
eyes,  so  that  for  most  of  the  varieties  in  the 
first  category,  the  modification  of  short -pruning 
which  gives  fruit -spurs  of  three  or  four  eyes 
and  wood -spurs  of  one  eye  is  recommended. 

TYPE  I. — Charbono,  Cinsaut,  Mataro,  Carig- 
nane,  Grenache,  Petit  and  Alicante  Bouschet, 
Aramon,  Mourastel,  Verdal,  Ugni-blanc,  Folle- 
blanche,  Burger,  Zinfandel,  Griiner  Velteliner, 
Peverella,  Zierfahndler  (?),  Rother  Steinschiller 
(on  poor  soils),  Slankamenka,  Green  Hungarian 
(on  poor  soils),  Blue  Portuguese  (on  poor  soils), 


DIFFERENT    VARIETIES  527 

Tinta  Amarella,  Moscatello  fino,  Pedro  Ximenes, 
Palomino,  Beba  (?),  Peruno,  Mantuo,  Mourisco 
Branco,  Malmsey,  Mourisco  Preto,  Feher  Szagos, 
Muscat  of  Alexandria,  Barbarossa. 

TYPE  II. — St.  Macaire,  Beclan  (longer  or 
shorter,  according  to  richness  of  soil),  Teinturier 
male,  Mondeuse,  Marsanne,  Chasselas,  Muscatel, 
Grosse  Blaue,  Sauvignon  Blanc,  Sauvignon  Vert, 
Nebbiolo,  Fresa,  Aleatico. 

TYPE  III. — Cabernet  Sauvignon  and  Cabernet 
Franc  (on  poor  soils  and  hillsides),  Verdot,  Tan- 
nat,  Gamai  Teinturier,  Gros  Mansenc,  Pinots, 
Meunier,  Gamais,  Pinot  Blanc,  Pinot  Chardonay, 
Rulander,  Affenthaler,  Johannisberger,  Franken 
Riesling  (on  hillsides),  Kleinberger,  Traminer, 
Walschriesling,  Rothgipfler,  Lagrain  (?  perhaps 
short),  Marzemino,  Blue  Portuguese  (on  rich 
soils),  Barbera,  Moretto,  Refosco,  Tinta  de  Ma- 
deira, Tinta  Cao,  Verdelho,  Boal,  Sultanina, 
Sultana.* 

TYPE  IV.— Green  Hungarian,  Rother  Stein- 
schiller  (on  rich  soils),  Neiretta,  Mission,  West's 
Prolific,  Robin  Noir. 

TYPE  V. — St.  Macaire  and  Mondeuse  (on  rich 
bottom  soils),  Tinta  Valdepenas,  Marsanne, 
Clairette  Blanche,  Semillon,  Sauvignon  Blanc 
(on  rich  soils),  Muscadelle  du  Bordelais,  Ver- 

*In  the  original,  Sultanina  and  Sultana  are  in  the  list  of  short- 
pruned  varieties,  but  I  ana  informed  by  the  California  Experiment 
Station  that  they  should  be  placed  with  the  long-pruned  ^varieties. 

BRA 

OF  THK 

TTNIVERST 


528 


VINIPERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 


' 

V 


naccia  Bianca,  Furmint  Bakator, 
Tadone>  Gros  Colman,  Black  Mo- 
rocco (!),  Cornichon  (?),  Emperor, 
Tokay  (!),  Almeria,  Pizzutello,  Cal- 
ifornia Black  Malvoisie. 

TYPE  VI.—  Malbec,  Petite  Sirah 
and  Serine,  Cabernet  Sauvignon 
and  Cabernet  Franc  (on  rich  bottom 
soils),  Merlot,  Gros  Mansenc  (?  on 
rich  bottom  soils),  Chauche  Noir, 
Bastardo,  Trousseau,  Ploussard, 
Etraie  de  1'Adhui,  Chauche  Gris, 
Franken  Riesling  (on  rich  soils). 


328.     Old  arm 


GLASS-HOUSE  PRACTICE 

There  are  many  systems  of  train- 
ing vines  in  graperies.  In  fact, 
nearly  every  gardener  has  a  mode 
or  a  method  of  his  own,  which  he 
insists  is  better  than  all  others  ; 
and  this  is  proof  that  many  systems 
are  equally  good.  In  general,  the 
vine  is  trained  to  one  arm,  which 
extends  from  the  ground  to  the 
top  of  the  house.  From  the  sides 
of  this  arm,  spurs  are  taken  out  ; 
and  these  spurs  are  cut  back  each 

o  °ne  Or 


with  short  spurs,    shows  a  part  of  an  arm  after  prun- 


GLASS-HOUSE    PRACTICE 


529 


ing,    with   the  very  short   spurs.      Some   growers 
prefer  to  have  longer  spurs,  as  in   Fig.  329.     It 

I 


329.     Long-spur  pruning. 

is  generally  desired  to  have  an  alternation  of  fruit- 
bearing  on  these  spurs.  This  is  done  by  pinch- 
ing the  flower  clusters  from  some  of  the  shoots, 
or  by  cutting  to  a  strong  or  fruit -bearing  bud 
on  one  spur,  and  to  a  weak  or  barren  bud  at 
HH 


530 


VINIFERA    GRAPE    TRAINING 


the    very    base    of    the    other.      The    weak  bud 

gives  only  a  shoot ;    but  the  next  year  it  is  cut 

to  a  strong  bud  and  the 
neighboring  spur  is  cut 
to  a  weak  one. 

The  vine  in  Fig.  329 
has  spurs  in  pairs.  The 
one  on  the  left  has 
already  been  cut  six 
times.  The  pruning  of 
this  vine  is  explained 
in  Fig.  330.  The  former 
prunings  are  marked  by 
the  letters.  A  more  de- 
tailed view  of  an  old 
spur  is  given  in  Fig. 
331. 

It  is  generally  best  to 
prune  the  vines  as  soon 
as  the  fruit  is  off,  there- 
by allowing  the  vines 
to  be  protected  during 

the  winter,  and  destroying   the  lodging   places  of 

insects  and  fungi. 


330.     The  spurs  pruned. 


331.     An  old  spur. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Adlum,  quoted 391,393 

Almond,  fruit-bearing 74 

Althsea 338,340 

Anderson,  A.  K.,  quoted 382 

Apple,  fruit-buds 22,30,  69 

—  leaf-bud 27,  69 

—  flowers 55 

—  pruning  and  references 309 

—  root-pruning 248 

Apples,  dwarf 278 

—  experiments  on 103 

Apricot,  fruit-bearing 50,  74 

—  pruning  and  references 310 

Arbor  Kniffin 474 

Arbors,  of  grapes 490 

Arches 351 

Arm,  defined 404 

Ash  logs 86 

Azalea 340 

Bacteria  in  wounds 92 

Balmer,  quoted 187,  215,  308 

Barberry 340 

Bark-bound 78 

Bark,  expansion  of 76 

Barns,  William  D 402 

grape  training 466 

quoted 296 

Bast,  for  tying 428 

Beach,  quoted 328,  331 

Bearing  year 176 

Bellair,  G.  A.,  quoted 363 

Bending 167 

Bioletti,  F.  T.,  quoted 494 

Blackberry,  fruit-bearing 64,  75 

—  pruning 323 

Bleeding 103,  413 


PAGE 

Bois,  D.,  quoted 355 

Bolting  trees 125 

Bordeaux  Mixture  for  wounds.  .109, 
119,  121 

Borers,  injury  by 122 

Brambles,  fruit-bearing 63 

Brehaut,  quoted 364 

Bridge-grafting 120 

Brunk,  T.  L.,  quoted 236,  240 

Buchatt,  on  ringing 285 

Bud,  cutting  near 221 

Budd,  Professor,  quoted 145 

Budded  trees 263 

Burning  prunings 308 

Burroughs,  on  ringing 296 

Bushes,  pruning 195,  335 

Butternut,  fruit-bearing 72 

California 200,  215,  308,  310 

—  vine  pruning 494 

Callus 83 

—  on  roots 233 

Cambium 82 

Candelabrum 358 

Cane,  defined 404 

Card,  on  pruning 185 

—  quoted 113 

Caywood  system 474 

Chautauqua  training 434,  439 

Cheal,  J.,  quoted 349 

Checking  growth 162 

Chemical  analyses 178 

Cherry,  black 9 

—  fruit-spur 46,  74 

—  pruning  and  references 313 

-split 122 

—  struggle  for  existence  in 7,  11 


(533) 


534 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Cherry,  wild 7 

Chestnut,  fruit-bearing 72,  75 

Chisels  for  pruning 115,  302 

Clematis 340 

Climate  and  pruning. .  .185,  187,  199 

Coal-tar  for  wounds Ill 

Coates,  quoted 115 

Come-alongs 420 

Conifers,  pruning 140 

Copings  for  fruits 350 

Co-terminal  fruit-bearing 59,  74 

Corbett,  quoted 233,  402 

Cordon 342,  343,  357 

Cornell,  W.  T 458 

Cornell,  root-pruning  at 240 

Crab,  flowering 340 

—  pruning 15 

Crittenden  system 476 

Cross-wire  system 477 

Crotches 125 

Currant,  fruit-bearing  ... .56,  66,  74 

—  pruning 327,  340 

Cutting-back 95,  157, 

174,  180,  195,  205 

Dendroseope 303 

Des  Cars,  quoted 100,  111,  302 

Devitalizing  by  pruning 4 

Devol,  W.  S.,  quoted 306 

Dewberry,  fruit-bearing 64,  75 

—  pruning 323 

Dextrine 179 

Downing,  A.  J.,  quoted 151 

Dressings 84,  89,  109,  190 

Drooping  grape  training 458 

Du  Breuil,  quoted 343,  368 

Duf our,  quoted 395 

Duggar,  B.  M.,  quoted 90 

Dwarfing 227 

Dwarfs,  management  of 269 

Eisen,  book  by 494 

Elder 340 

Elm,  growth  of  bark 76 

Elms,  inarched 388 

Espalier 342,343,357 


PAGE 

Evergreens,  pruning 140,  150 

Exochorda 340 

Fan  training 455 

Farlow,  W.  F.,  quoted 129 

Fences,  for  fruits 351 

Filbert,  fruit-bearing 72,  74 

Fisher,  on  ringing 286 

Florida  freezes 147 

Form  of  top 193 

Forsythia 340 

Freezing,  splitting  by 122 

Frozen  trees,  repairing 141 

—  wood 107 

Fruit-bud 21,  27,  68 

Fruit-spur 30  et  seq 

Fuller,  grape  training 391 

Fungi  of  wounds 92 

Garden  and  Forest,  quoted 337 

Gardeners'  Chronicle,  quoted. .  .384 

Gaucher,  quoted 284 

Girardin's  grafts 345 

Girdles,  repairing 120 

Girdling 17, 116, 119, 

162,  163,  167,  281 

Glass-house  grape  training 528 

Gnawed  trees 122 

Goblet  training 368 

Goessmann,  on  ringing 285 

Goff ,  E.  S.,  quoted 144 

Gooseberries,  training 384 

Gooseberry,  fruit-bearing 56,  74 

—  pruning 327 

Grafted  trees 263 

Grafting  vines 492 

—  wounds 120 

Grape,  fruit-bearing 63,  75 

—  ringing 284 

—  training 390 

—  young  plant 210,  411 

Grapes,  frozen 149 

Graperies 528 

Green,  Professor,  quoted 145 

Habit  of  fruit-bearing 163 

Hale,  J.  H.,  quoted 262,316 


INDEX 


535 


PAGE 

Hardy,  J.  A.,  quoted 361 

Harris,  J.  S.,  quoted 145 

Hartwig,  quoted 364 

Haviland,  Sands 474 

Hazel,  fruit-bearing 72,  74 

Heading-in 96,  157, 

174,  180,  195,  205 

Healing  of  wounds 76,  189 

Hedges 333 

Hemlock  knots 79 

Henderson,  quoted 167 

Hewett,  B.  W.,  quoted 146 

Hickory,  fruit-bearing.... 61,  72,  75 

—  log 87 

High  renewal 441 

Hirschinger,  C.,  quoted 146 

Hofer,  A.  F 490 

Horizontal  arm 437 

—  training 486 

Hudson,  R.,  girdling 293 

Husks,  for  tying.- 428 

Hydrangea 338,  340 

Inarching 120,  388 

Indian  Riv.  Advocate,  quoted  ..147 

Iowa  145 

Iron,  sulfate  of 344,  347 

Johnson,  S.  W.,  quoted 393 

Juneberry,  fruit-bearing 56 

Kalmia 340 

Kellogg,  G.  J.,  quoted 146 

Kerria 340 

Kieffer  pear,  treatment  of 159 

Knife 298 

—  ringing  295 

Kniffin,  William 459 

Kniffin  training 432,  460 

Knisely,  quoted 178 

Knot-holes 81 

Knots 79 

Koopmann,  K.,  quoted 169 

Label  wires 116 

Leader  150 

Lichen  on  trees Ill 

Lilac,  pruning 336,  340 


PAGE 

Lilac  shoot 1 

Lindley,  quoted 284 

Lodeman,  on  grape  training 402 

—  quoted 278 

Loquat,  fruit-bearing 75 

Lord,  O.  M.,  quoted 145 

Macomber,  J.  T.,  quoted 384 

Magnolia 340 

Maple,  fruit-bearing 59 

—  log 88 

—  tapping 85 

Marvin,  D.  S.,  quoted 457 

Mask,  pruning 307 

Medlar,  fruit-bearing 75 

Meehan's  Monthly,  quoted 140 

Mending  trees 116 

Minnesota   145 

Mock  orange 336,  340 

Moss  on  trees  Ill 

Mulberry,  fruit-bearing 75 

Munson  training 480 

Myticuttah  shears    304 

Nectrias 94 

Neff,  J.  B.,  quoted 310 

Notching 167,  169 

Oak  knots. 79 

Obstructions  to  sap 161,  167 

Olive,  fruit-bearing 75 

Opoix,  quoted 170 

Orange,  fruit-bearing 75 

—  pruning 314 

Oranges,  frozen 147 

Ornamental  plants   335 

Overbearing 165 

Overhead  grape  training 474 

Paint  for  wounds 109,  113,  190 

Peach,  fruit-bearing 50,  74 

—  pruning  and  references 315 

—  root-pruning 245 

—  twig  of 95 

Peaches,  laying  down 384 

Pear,  fruit-spur 40,  74 

—  pruning  and  references 319 

—  root-pruning  230,  245 


536 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Pear  twigs,  swellings  on 178 

Pear-blight 122 

Pears,  dwarfs 271 

Pentosans 179 

Persimmon,  fruit-bearing 75 

Philips,  A.  J.,  quoted 146 

Physiology  of  pruning 13 

Pine,  girdled  117 

Plains,  pruning  on  the  .144, 185,  199 

Plashing 334 

Plugging  cavities 124 

Plum,  fruit-spur 46,  74 

—  headed-in 195 

—  pruning  and  references 320 

—  root-pruning 247 

Polyporus  sulphurous 94 

Pome-fruits 189 

Poplars,  fruit-bearing 71 

Positions  of  fruit-buds 74 

Post  training 488 

Pots,  trees  in 374 

Powell,  quoted 313 

Prairie  Farmer,  quoted 418 

Price,  R.  EL.,  quoted 236 

Principles  of  pruning 133 

Prunus  serotina,  wound  on 94 

Punk-fungus 94 

Pyramids 342,  356 

Quince,  fruit-bearing 60,  75 

—  pruning  and  references 322 

Raffia  426 

Raspberry,  fruit-bearing 64,  75 

—  pruning 323 

Reasons  for  pruning 135 

Reducing  sugar 179 

Reid,  E.  W.,  quoted 306 

Rejuvenating  trees   139 

Renewal,  denned 410 

Rhododendron 340 

Ringing 17,  281 

Rivers,  on  pot  trees 382 

—  on  pyramids 358 

—  on  root-pruning  230 

Robbers..  ...155 


PAGE 

Root-pruning 138,  227 

Rose,  flower-bearing 67 

Roses,  pruning 137,  336,  340 

Rural  New-Yorker,  quoted..  121,  307 

Sargent,  C.  S.,  quoted 100 

Saws 300 

Scaffold  limbs 204 

Schizophyllum  commune 94 

Scraping  trees 121 

Season  for  pruning 181 

Shade  trees,  pruning 333 

Shaping  the  top 222 

Shears 298,  301 

Shellac  for  wounds 109 

Shoot,  defined 404 

Shredding 167 

Shrubs,  pruning 195,  335 

Snow,  Geo.  C 402 

Snowball 340 

Sorauer,  quoted 154,  182 

Spencer,  John  W. .  .402,  424,  428,  434 

Spirea,  pruning 336,  340 

Splitting  of  trunks 122 

Spur 30  et  seq. 

—  defined 410 

Standard 342 

Starch  in  twigs 179 

Starnes,  H.  N.,  quoted 402,  486 

Stone-f  ruits 189 

Straw,  for  tying 428 

Strawberry,  trimming 304 

Street  trees,  injuries  to 129 

Stringfellow  system 236 

Stripping  vines 414 

Stub-root  pruning 236 

Subsequent  treatment 250 

Suckers 155 

Sugar,  reducing 179 

Sulfate  of  iron 344,  347 

Summer  pruning 140,  181 

Sun-scald  '. 122,  185 

Tallow  for  wounds 109 

Tamarisk 338,  340 

Tap-hole  85 


INDEX 


537 


PAGE 

Tap-root   151 

Tar  for  wounds 109 

Thinning  the  fruit 174 

Thomas,  quoted 391 

Thomson,  quoted 365 

Tools 297 

Top,  form  of , 193 

Top-worked  trees 263 

Training,  specific  modes 341 

Transplanting,  root-pruning  at.. 232 

Trellis,  for  grapes 416 

Trunk,  expansion  of 76 

Twisting 167 

Tying  grapes 426 

Umbrella  training 469 

Upright  grape  training 436 

Van  Dusen,  H.  P.,  quoted 469 

Vase  356 

Veitch,  quoted 384 

Viburnum 340 

Vines,  grafting 492 

Vineyard,  layout  of 424 

Vinifera  grape  training 494 

Vitis  vinif era 494 

Walker,  E.,  quoted 137,  336 

Walls  for  fruits 348 

Walnut,  fruit-bearing 72,  75 

—  Japanese 103 

Warneken,  quoted 376 


PAGE 

Washington  187,  216 

Waters'  pruner 301 

Watersprouts 155 

Waugh,  quoted 483 

Wax  for  wounds 109 

—  recipe  for 119 

Weeping  of  Tines 413 

Weigela 340 

When  to  prune 102,  181, 189 

Whitf ord,  Leroy ,  quoted 121 

Why  we  prune 135 

Wickson,  quoted 200,  315,  494, 

509,  516 

Williams,  H.  S.,  quoted 147 

Willow,  Kilmarnock 269 

Willows,  for  tying 427 

—  fruit-bearing 71 

Winter-injured  trees 141 

Winter-killed  buds 73 

Wire,  for  tying 428 

—  for  vineyards 419 

Wire-stretchers  420 

Wisconsin 144,  146 

Wool  twine,  for  tying 427 

Wound,  how  to  make 99,  114 

—  nature  of 82 

Yeomans,  on  pruning 221,  272 

Young  trees,  trimming 205 


Hurat  Srtents  Serfes. 

Edited   by  PROFESSOR  L.    H.    BAILEY. 

BOOKS  which  state  the  underlying   principles  of    agriculture 
in  such    language    that   they  may  be  read    at   the    home 
fireside,  in  the   office,  at  the  club   or   grange,  or  used   as 
text -books.     Each    is    substantially   bound    in    blue   cloth. 
These    books   combine  the    results  of    the  very  latest  and    best 
science  with  the  best  skill  of  practical  farm  work  and  manage- 
ment.    Each    one    is  written    by   a  specialist  who    has    attained 
reputation    for    long-continued    and    conscientious    work.     Each 

volume  is  readable,  simple,  clear-cut,  practical,  up 
to  date,  and  thoroughly  scientific  and  reliable.  The 

detailed  information  given  in  these  volumes  is  of  the  most  val- 
uable character  to  every  cultivator  of  the  soil.  Five  volumes 
are  now  ready: 


THE    SOIL  :      Its  Nature,  Relations,  and  Fundamental 

Principles   of   Management.     By  F.  H. 

KING,    Professor   of   Agricultural   Physics    in   the   University   of 
Wisconsin.      303    pages,  45    illustrations.  75    CtS. 

It  comprises  an  introduction,  which  discusses  the  making  of  soils 
by  natural  agencies  ;  and  chapters  follow  on  the  nature,  functions, 
origin  and  wasting  of  soils  ;  texture,  composition,  and  kinds  of 
soils  ;  nitrogen  of  the  soil ;  capillarity,  solution,  diffusion,  and 
osmosis  ;  soil  water  ;  conservation  of  soil  moisture  ;  distribution 
of  roots  in  the  soil  ;  soil  temperature  ;  relation  of  air  to  the  soil; 
farm  drainage  ;  irrigation  ;  physical  effect  of  tillage  and  fertilizers. 
It  has  received  the  warmest  approbation  of  teachers  and  farmers 
in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

"  I  consider  it  a  most  desirable  addition  to  our  agricultural  literature,  and 
a  distinct  advance  over  previous  treatises  on  the  same  subject,  not  only  for 
popular  use,  but  also  for  students  and  specialists,  who  will  find  many  new  and 
useful  suggestions  therein."  E.  W.  HILGAKD, 

Director  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Berkeley,  Cal. 


THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND :   A  summary 

Sketch   of 

the  Relationship  of   Farm-Practice  to  the   Maintaining 
and   Increasing   of   the   Productivity   of   the    Soil.     By 

I.  P.  EGBERTS,  Director   of   the   College   of   Agriculture,  Cornell 
University.     440  pages;   fully  illustrated.  $1.25 


Plural  Science  Series. 

Edited  by  PROFESSOR  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS:    A  Sueeinet  AC- 

count    of     the 

History,  Principles  and  Practice  of  the  Application  of 
Liquids  and  Powders  to  Plants  for  the  Purpose  of 
Destroying  Insects  and  Fungi.  By  E.  G.  LODEMAN,  late 
Instructor  in  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell  University.  399 
pages,  92  illustrations.  $1.00 

The  only  complete  manual  of  the  spraying  of  plants,  and  the 
standard  work  upon  the  subject.  The  first  part  is  a  complete  his- 
tory of  the  rise  of  spraying,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad. 
There  are  also  full  illustrated  accounts  of  pumps  and  nozzles, 
complete  recipes  of  formulas,  and  the  like.  The  second  part,  com- 
prising 135  pages,  is  an  alphabetical  illustrated  account  of  the 
various  insects  and  fungi,  with  methods  of  treating  them.  The 
book  as  a  whole  is  not  only  a  complete  monograph  upon  the  sub- 
ject, but  a  most  valuable  manual  of  practice. 

"  I  have  looked  it  carefully  over  with  a  great  deal  of  interest,  and  feel  that 
it  is  a  very  timely  book,  and  one  that  can  be  safely  recommended  to  all  horti- 
culturists and  fruit-growers  as  the  best."  PRES.  H.  H.  GOODELL, 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College, 
Amherst,  Mass. 


THE    PRINCIPLES   OF   FRUIT-GROWING; 

By  PROFESSOR  L.  H.  BAILEY.     520  pages,  114  illustrations.   $1.25 

This  book  is  designed  to  treat  all  those  underlying  matters  of 
fruit-growing  which  are  common  to  most  or  all  of  the  various 
fruits.  The  author  in  preparing  a  monograph  upon  the  Apple, 
concluded  that  it  would  serve  the  purpose  of  his  readers  better 
if  all  the  essentials  of  fruit-growing  were  placed  in  a  separate  and 
initial  volume.  He  has,  therefore,  delayed  the  preparation  of  the 
Apple  book  for  the  present. 

«  The  Principles  of  Fruit-Growing"  is  a  unique  book,  and  brings 
the  very  best  science  of  the  day  to  join  hands  with  the  best  prac- 
tice. It  includes  illustrations  of  every  important  operation,  and 
may  be  taken  as  a  consensus  of  the  opinions  and  methods  of  the 
most  successful  growers.  The  contents  are  as  follows  :  Intro- 
ductory Discussion,  comprising  an  inventory  and  classification  of 
fruits,  the  fruit  zones,  the  outlook  for  fruit-growing  ;  the  Location 
and  Its  Climate,  with  a  full  discussion  of  frosts  ;  the  Tilling  of 
Fruit  Lands  ;  the  Fertilizing  of  Fruit  Lands  ;  the  Planting  of 
Orchards  ;  Secondary  Care  of  Orchards  ;  Diseases,  Insects  and 
Spraying;  Picking  and  Packing  and  Storing  Fruits,  Shipping,  etc  : 
and  a  bibliography  of  American  writings  on  the  subject. 


Plural  Srtettrx  Series. 

Edited  by  PROFESSOR  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS:      A  Treatise  upon 

the    Nature    and 

Qualities  of  Dairy  Milk,  and  the  Manufacture  of  But- 
ter and  Cheese.  By  HENRY  H.  WING,  Assistant  Professor 
of  Dairy  Husbandry  in  the  Cornell  University.  280  pages, 
33  illustrations.  $1.00 

This  is  the  only  book  which  adequately  covers  the  whole  field  of 
dairying.  Its  range  is  indicated  by  the  table  of  contents  :  Secre- 
tion of  Milk  ;  Composition  of  Milk  ;  Testing  of  Milk  ;  Ferments 
and  Fermentations  of  Milk,  and  their  Control;  Market  Milk  ;  Sep- 
aration of  Cream  :  Ripening  of  Cream  ;  Churning  ;  Finishing  and 
Marketing  Butter ;  Milk  for  Cheese-Making ;  Cheddar  Cheese- 
Making  ;  Varieties  of  Cheese  ;  By-Products  of  the  Dairy  ;  Butter 
and  Cheese  Factories  ;  Statistics  and  Economics  of  the  Dairy  In- 
dustry ;  Appendix,  comprising  useful  rules  and  tests,  metric  sys- 
tem, dairy  laws,  and  references  to  dairy  literature. 

***  So  long  as  the  demand  warrants,  new  volumes  will  be  added 
to  the  RURAL  SCIENCE  LIBRARY.  Definite  arrangements  have  now 
been  completed  for  the  following  : 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS.    By  J.  C.  ARTHUR,  Purdue  Univ. 
PRINCIPLES    OF    BREEDING    OF    ANIMALS.      By    W.    H. 

BREWER,   of  Yale  University. 

BUSH   FRUITS.    By  F.  W.  CARD,  of  University  of  Nebraska. 

PLANT  PATHOLOGY.  By  B.  T.  GALLOWAY  and  associates,  of 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

SEEDS  AND  SEED-GROWING.  By  G.  H.  HICKS,  of  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS  AND  NITROGEN-GATHERING.  By 
E.  W.  HILGARD,  of  University  of  California. 

FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.  By  W.  H.  JORDAN,  of  New  York 
State  Experiment  Station. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.  By  F.  H.  KING,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin. 

FERTILIZERS.    By  E.  B.  VOORHEES,  of  N.  J.  Exp.  Station. 

RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE.  By  GEORGE  T.  FAIR- 
CHILD,  Ex-President  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Kansas. 

FARM  POULTRY.  By  GEORGE  C.  WATSON,  of  Pennsylvania 
State  College. 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY, 

36  Fifth  Avenue,  NEW  YORK. 


Edited  by  PROFESSOR  L.   H.   BAILEY. 

COMPRISING  practical  hand-books  explaining  the  methods 
practiced  by  the  horticulturist.  They  are  tastily  bound 
in  green  flexible  cloth.  Four  volumes  are  now  ready, 
all  written  by  PROFESSOR  BAILEY,  of  Cornell  University. 

PLANT -BREEDING:       BeinS  Five    Lectures   upon 
the  Amelioration  of  Domes- 
tie  Plants.     293  pages,  20  illustrations.  $1.00 

This  is  the  only  book  devoted  to  this  subject.  It  comprises  five 
chapters  or  lectures  :  The  Fact  and  Phylosophy  of  Variation  ; 
The  Philosophy  of  the  Crossing  of  Plants  ;  How  Domestic  Varieties 
Originate  ;  Borrowed  Opinions,  being  translations  from  the  writ- 
ings of  Verlot,  Carriere,  and  Focke  ;  Pollination,  or  How  to  Cross 
Plants.  Chapter  III.  contains  the  list  of  fifteen  rules  for  plant- 
breeding  which  DeVarigny,  the  eminent  French  writer,  has  called 
"the  quindecalogue  of  the  horticulturist,"  and  of  which  he  says, 
"Solomon— if  he  had  devoted  himself  to  horticulture— could  not 
have  judged  more  soundly  than  Mr.  Bailey."  It  is  the  purpose  of 
the  book  to  tell  how  varieties  of  cultivated  plants  come  about,  and 
how  man  may  originate  them. 

"I  have  read  the  work  on  '  Plant-Breeding,'  by  Professor  L.  H.  Bailey,  with 
keen  interest,  and  find  it  just  what  I  expected  from  such  a  source  ;  viz.,  a 
most  satisfactory  treatise  on  a  subject  of  most  pressing  horticultxiral  impor- 
tance. Professor  Bailey  combines  a  breadth  of  view  with  knowledge  of  detail, 
and  produces  written  work  most  delightful  to  the  scholar,  and  at  the  same 
time  fit  to  command  the  respect  and  correct  the  practice  of  the  craftsman.  I 
honor  Professor  Bailey  as  a  leader  in  the  advancement  of  horticulture." 

E.  J.  WICKSON, 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  Cal. 


THE    HORTICULTURIST'S    RULE -BOOK: 

A  compendium  of  useful  information  fop  fruit-grow- 
ers, truek-gardeners,  florists,  and  others.  Fourth  edition. 
312  pages.  75  CtS. 

This  is  the  standard  work  of  reference  for  horticulturists,  and  is 
now  so  well  known  that  a  detailed  description  is  no  longer  neces- 
sary. The  fact  that  the  index  contains  2,000  entries  shows  the 
great  range  of  its  contents.  It  is  heaping  full  of  information  up- 
on such  matters  as  recipes  for  insecticides  and  fungicides,  descrip- 
tions (with  remedies)  of  insects  and  diseases,  weeds,  lawns,  graft- 
ing-waxes, seed  and  planting-tables,  tables  of  yields,  rules  for 
greenhouse  heating  and  management,  with  figures,  methods  of 
storing  produce,  tariff  and  postal  rates,  rules  of  societies  for  nam- 
ing and  exhibiting  specimens,  score-cards  and  scales  of  points, 
analyses  of  fertilizing  substances,  lists  of  currant  horticultural 
books  and  journals,  with  prices  and  publishers,  etc. 


Snrtes. 

Edited  by  PROFESSOR  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

THE   NURSERY  -  BOOK  •    A  Complete  Guide  to  the 

Multiplication  of  Plants. 

Third  edition,  thoroughly  revised  and   extended.     365  pages,  152 
illustrations.  $1.00 

This  manual,  which  has  been  one  of  the  most  popular  of  recent 
horticultural  books,  was  first  published  in  1891.  In  this  third  edi- 
tion, all  the  features  of  the  first  two  editions  have  been  preserved, 
and  the  work  has  been  extended  to  include  many  new  subjects, 
such  as  seed-testing,  mutual  influence  of  stock  and  cion,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  devitalizing  effects  of  graftage,  the  management  and 
fertilizing  of  nursery  lands,  the  grading  of  trees,  storing  of  trees, 
trimming  trees  in  the  nursery,  the  healing  of  wounds,  dwarfing 
trees,  root-grafted  vs.  budded  trees,  and  a  full  glossary.  Very 
many  new  and  original  illustrations  have  been  added.  The  book 
comprises  full  practical  directions  for  seed-sowing,  the  making  of 
all  kinds  of  layers,  stools,  cuttings,  propagation  by  bulbs  and 
tubers,  and  very  complete  accounts  of  all  the  leading  kinds  of 
budding,  grafting  and  inarching.  Aside  from  this,  The  Nursery 
List  is  an  alphabetical  catalogue  of  about  1,500  plants,  — of  fruit, 
kitchen-garden,  ornamental  and  greenhouse  species,  — with  direc- 
tions for  their  multiplication.  The  book  is  the  most  complete 
treatise  of  its  kind  in  the  language,  and  is  the  standard  reference 
book  of  nurserymen. 

"This  book  should  be  in  the  home  of  not  only  every  horticulturist,  but  of 
every  family,  irrespective  of  occupation,  who  love  flowers  or  ornamental  plants, 
for  it  treats  of  the  propagation  of  these  as  well  as  of  food-plants."— Michigan 
Frtiit-  Grower. 


THE  FORCING-BOOK:  A  Manual  of  the  cmtiva- 

: tion  of  Vegetables  in  Glass 

Houses.     266  pages,  88  illustrations.  $1.00 

A  handbook  of  instructions  upon  the  forcing  of  vegetables  for 
market,  which  is  the  completest  work  of  the  kind  yet  published  in 
this  country.  It  is  based  on  careful  experimentation  at  the  Cor- 
nell University  Station,  and  a  long  familiarity  with  the  forcing 
business.  It  contains  full  estimates  of  the  cost  of  heating  forcing- 
houses  and  of  the  labor  necessary  to  run  them,  with  illustrated 
chapters  on  the  construction  of  forcing-houses,  and  their  manage- 
ment. Very  complete  directions  are  given  for  the  watering,  venti- 
lating, shading,  and  piping  of  houses  ;  for  the  control  of  insects 
and  fungous  diseases,  the  making  of  forcing-house  soils,  etc. 
Then  follow  detailed  instructions  as  to  how  to  force  lettuce,  cauli- 
flower, radish,  asparagus,  rhubarb,  pea,  salad  plants  and  mints, 
root-crops,  pepino,  cucumber,  muskmelon,  bean,  pepper,  egg-plant, 
and  others.  The  final  chapter  is  a  collection  of  summaries  of  the 
leading  points  in  the  management  of  each  croup,  so  arranged  that 
the  busy  man  can  turn  to  any  one  of  them  instantly.  The  book 
should  be  had  by  every  person  who  has  a  greenhouse. 


(SErdm-QIraf t 

Edited  by  PROFESSOR  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

THE  FORCING-BOOK-Continned. 

wThe  discnssion  of  the  various  forms  of  houses,  with  their  structural  de- 
tails, is  very  complete,  although  concise,  and  for  the  space  it  takes  it  gives 
more  valuable  information  than  can  be  found  elsewhere  in  the  same  compass. 
All  such  practical  questions  as  would  be  treated  under  the  head  of  soil,  fertil- 
izers, irrigation,  shading,  pollination,  etc.,  have  received  careful  study,  and  the 
beginner  can  feel  safe  in  following  them  to  the  letter."—  Garden  and  Forest, 

"It  would  have  saved  us  dollars  and  dollars  if  we  could  have  had  it  a  few 
years  ago."  C.  J.  PENNOCK,  Kennett  Square,  Pa. 

GARDEN-MAKING:      Suggestions  for  the  Utilizing 
of  Home  Grounds.     By  L.  H. 

BAILEY,    aided    by    L.   R.    TAFT,    F.   A.    WAUGH,    and    ERNEST 
WALKER.    417  pages,  256  illustrations.  $1.00 

Here  is  a  book  literally  «  for  the  million  "  who  in  broad  America 
have  some  love  for  growing  things.  «  Every  family  can  have  a 
garden.  If  there  is  not  a  foot  of  land,  there  are  porches  or  win- 
dows. Wherever  there  is  sunlight,  plants  may  be  made  to  grow; 
and  one  plant  in  a  tin-can  may  be  a  more  helpful  and  inspiring 
garden  to  some  mind  than  a  whole  acre  of  lawn  and  flowers  may 
be  to  another."  Thus  Professor  Bailey  introduces  his  subject,  and 
the  book  which  follows  is  one  to  instruct,  inspire,  edify  and  edu- 
cate the  reader,  if  he  can  raise  his  eyes  from  city  cobble-stones! 
It  tells  of  ornamental  gardening  of  any  range,  with  lists  of  trees 
and  shrubs  most  suitable  for  various  effects  ;  treats  of  fruits  and 
of  vegetables  for  home  use,  and  gives  the  word  of  instruction  so 
often  wanted,  but  hitherto  unattainable  in  any  one  simple  and  com- 
pact book.  No  modern  American  work  covers  this  important  field. 
The  illustrations  are  copious  and  beautiful. 

GARDEN-MAKING  includes  General  Advice;  the  Plan  of  the  Place 
(The  Picture  in  the  Landscape,  How  to  make  the  improvements, 
etc. ) ;  Planting  the  Ornamental  Grounds  ;  The  Fruit  Plantation ; 
The  Vegetable  Garden;  Seasonal  Reminders  (Calendars  for  North 
and  for  the  South). 


hg  Trrrfessm: 

Not  included  in  either  of  the  foregoing  series. 

THE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE ;  A  coiiee- 

tion    of 

Evolution  Essays  Suggested  by  the  Study  of   Domestic 

Plants.    Second  edition.  $2.00 

This  is  an  illustrated  volume  of  515  pages  by  Professor  Bailey. 

containing  an  immense  amount  of  fact,  experiment  and  philosophy 


irg  frsfessnr 

THE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE   UNLIKE-Continued. 

respecting  the  evolution  of  plants,  and  particularly  of  their  modi- 
fication under  cultivation.  It  is  the  most  thoroiigh  discussion  of 
the  running-out  of  varieties,  acclimatization,  and  the  like.  It  is, 
in  fact,  the  only  book  which  can  be  called  a  philosophy  of  horti- 
culture. Jt  comprises  thirty  essays,  as  follows:  The  Survival  of 
the  Unlike  ;  Neo-Lamarckism  and  Nee-Darwinism;  The  Plant 
Individual  in  the  Light  of  Evolution,  or  The  Philosophy  of  Bud- 
Variation,  and  its  Bearing  upon  Weismannism ;  Experimental 
Evolution  amongst  Plants  ;  Van  Mons  and  Knight,  and  the  Pro- 
duction of  Varieties  ;  Some  Bearings  of  the  Evolution-Teaching 
upon  Plant-Cultivation  ;  Why  Have  our  Enemies  Increased  J  ;. 
Coxey's  Army  and  the  Russian  Thistle,  or  a  Sketch  of  the  Philos- 
ophy of  Weediness  ;  Recent  Progress  in  American  Horticulture; 
On  the  Supposed  Correlations  of  Quality  in  Fruits;  The  Natural 
History  of  Synonyms;  Reflective  Impressions  of  the  Nursery 
Business  ;  The  Relation  of  Seed-Bearing  to  Cultivation  ;  Variation 
after  Birth  ;  A  Pomological  Alliance  ;  Sketch  of  the  Relationship 
between  American  and  Eastern  Asian  Fruits  ;  Horticultural  Geo- 
graphy ;  Some  Emphatic  Problems  of  Climate  and  Plants,  Com- 
prising "Speculative  Notes  upon  Phenology  (the  Physiological 
Constant,  and  the  Climatal  Modification  of  Phenological  Phenom- 
ena)," and  "Some  Interrelations  of  Climatology  and  Horticul- 
ture ";  Are  American  Fruits  Best  Adapted  to  American  Conditions? ; 
Acclimatization  :  Does  it  Occur  ? ;  On  the  Longevity  of  Apple 
Trees  ;  Sex  in  Fruits  ;  Are  Novelties  Worth  their  Cost  ? ;  Why 
do  Promising  Varieties  Fail  ? ;  Reflections  upon  the  Longevity  of 
Varieties,  comprising  "Do  Varieties  Run  Out?"  "Ai%e  the  Varieties 
of  Orchard  Fruits  Running  Out  ?""  Studies  in  the  Longevity  of 
the  Varieties  of  Tomatoes";  Whence  Came  the  Cultivated  Straw- 
berry?; The  Battle  of  the  Plums;  The  Evolution  of  American 
Grapes  ;  The  Progress  of  the  Carnation,  comprising  "Types  and 
Tendencies  in  the  Carnation,"  "John  Thorpe's  Ideal  Carnation," 
and  "Border  Carnations";  Evolution  of  the  Petunia  ;  The  Amelio- 
ration of  the  Garden  Tomato,  comprising  «  The  Origin  of  the 
Tomato  from  a  Morphological  Standpoint,"  "History  of  the  Trophy 
Tomato,"  "The  Probable  Course  of  Evolution  of  the  Tomato,"  and 
"  Direction  of  Contemporaneous  Improvement  of  the  Tomato " ; 
Glossary. 

"  Whatever  Professor  Bailey  writes  is  interesting  reading.  He  has  the  rare 
gift  of  an  entertaining  style,  and  what  he  writes  people  want  to  read.  All  his 
previous  books  have  be«ni  widely  read,  and  this  will  prove  no  exception  to  the 
well-established  rule.  The  secret  of  this  popularity,  if  there  be  any  secret  about 
it,  is  that  when  he  writes  he  has  something  new  to  say,— something  based 
upon  experiences  and  observations.  These  are  by  no  means  all  his  own,  for 
he  has  the  ability  to  see  with  the  eyes  of  other  people,  as  well  as  with  his 
own.  He  is  thus  able  to  bring  into  his  pages  a  rich  mass  of  new  matter,  which 
gives  them  aditiomil  interest  and  value."  PROFESSOR  C.  E.  BESSEY, 

University  of  Nebraska,  in  "  Science." 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

66  Fifth  Avenue,  NEW  YORK 


Announcement  of   Important 
Horticultural  Books. 

In  addition  to  the  volumes  extending  the  Rural 
Science  Series,  as  given  on  a  previous  page,  the  fol- 
lowing important  works  are  in  preparation: 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS.    A  com- 

panion  volume  to  "  The  Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  and  written 
on  the  same  original  lines,  by  PROFESSOR  L.  H.  BAILEY.  It 
will  be  copiously  illustrated,  and  is  now  on  the  press. 

A  TEXT  BOOK  OF  AGRICULTURE  FOR  SCHOOL  USE. 

Designed  to  supply  a  practical  and  efficient  statement  of  the 
Elements  of  Agricultural  Science.  By  PROFESSOR  L.  H. 
BAILEY. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN  HORTICULTURE.    To 

be  published  in  three  large  illustrated  volumes,  dated  1900. 
This  work  will  be  the  first  comprehensive  and  adequate  pre- 
sentation of  American  horticulture  in  its  widest  sense,  and 
under  the  editorial  supervision  of  Professor  Bailey  will  con- 
tain signed  articles  by  eminent  specialists  on  various  topics, 
arranged  alphabetically.  The  illustrations  may  be  expected 
to  excel  in  beauty  and  accuracy  any  found  in  horticultural 
literature  to-day;  they  are  being  now  prepared  by  artists  of 
ability,  upon  a  consistent  plan.  The  typography  and  binding 
will  be  likewise  of  high  grade,  befitting  a  work  of  inter- 
national importance. 

8^* Inquiry  is  solicited  concerning  terms  of  publication,  etc., 
of  this  work.     Address 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

66  Fifth  Ave. 

NEW   YORK. 


THIS*  BOOK  ON 
WILL  INCREASE  TO 
DAY     AND    TO     $l-r 
OVERDUE. 


SEVENTH     DAY 


LD  2l-50f»-8,'82 


